Estrada-Peña, A. Ticks as vectors: taxonomy, biology and ecology. Rev. Sci. Tech. 34, 53–65 (2015).
Mansfield, K. L. et al. Emerging tick-borne viruses in the twenty-first century. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 7, 298 (2017).
Dantas-Torres, F. et al. Ticks and tick-borne diseases: a One Health perspective. Trends Parasitol. 28, 437–446 (2012). This comprehensive review highlights the clinical challenges of tick-borne diseases and advocates a unified One Health approach for their management and prevention.
Anderson, J. F. & Magnarelli, L. A. Biology of ticks. Infect. Dis. Clin. North. Am. 22, 195–215 (2008).
Guglielmone, A. A. et al. The Argasidae, Ixodidae and Nuttalliellidae (Acari: Ixodida) of the world: a list of valid species names. Zootaxa 2528, 1–28 (2010).
Wu, J. Tick-borne diseases transmission research: co-feeding in ticks. Open. Access. Gov. 36, 208–209 (2022).
Karbowiak, G. et al. The transstadial persistence of tick-borne encephalitis virus in Dermacentor reticulatus ticks in natural conditions. Acta. Parasitol. 61, 201–203 (2016).
Rennie, L. et al. Transovarial transmission of African swine fever virus in the argasid tick Ornithodoros moubata. Med. Vet. Entomol. 15, 140–146 (2001).
Montgomery, E. On a tick-borne gastro-enteritis of sheep and goats occurring in British East Africa. J. Comp. Pathol. 30, 28–57 (1917).
Dandawate, C. N., Work, T. H., Webb, J. K. & Shah, K. V. Isolation of Ganjam virus from a human case of febrile illness: a report of a laboratory infection and serological survey of human sera from three different states of India. Indian. J. Med. Res. 57, 975–982 (1969).
Krasteva, S., Jara, M., Frias-De-Diego, A. & Machado, G. Nairobi sheep disease virus: a historical and epidemiological perspective. Front. Vet. Sci. 7, 419 (2020).
Paules, C. I. et al. Tickborne diseases—confronting a growing threat. N. Engl. J. Med. 379, 701–703 (2018).
Labuda, M. & Nuttall, P. A. Tick-borne viruses. Parasitology 129, S221–S245 (2004).
Ko, K. K. K., Chng, K. R. & Nagarajan, N. Metagenomics-enabled microbial surveillance. Nat. Microbiol. 7, 486–496 (2022). This article underscores how metagenomics empowers scalable, unbiased surveillance to identify both known and emerging pathogens for public health preparedness.
Grabowski, J. M. & Hill, C. A. A roadmap for tick-borne flavivirus research in the “omics” era. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 7, 519 (2017).
Tokarz, R. et al. Virome analysis of Amblyomma americanum, Dermacentor variabilis, and Ixodes scapularis ticks reveals novel highly divergent vertebrate and invertebrate viruses. J. Virol. 88, 11480–11492 (2014).
Tokarz, R. et al. Identification of novel viruses in Amblyomma americanum, Dermacentor variabilis, and Ixodes scapularis ticks. mSphere 3, e00614-17 (2018).
Shi, M. et al. Redefining the invertebrate RNA virosphere. Nature 540, 539–543 (2016).
Pettersson, J. H. et al. Characterizing the virome of Ixodes ricinus ticks from northern Europe. Sci. Rep. 7, 10870 (2017).
Harvey, E. et al. Extensive diversity of RNA viruses in Australian ticks. J. Virol. 93, e01358-18 (2019).
Vandegrift, K. J. & Kapoor, A. The ecology of new constituents of the tick virome and their relevance to public health. Viruses 11, 529 (2019).
Pettersson, J. H. et al. Circumpolar diversification of the Ixodes uriae tick virome. PLoS Pathog. 16, e1008759 (2020).
Wille, M. et al. Sustained RNA virome diversity in Antarctic penguins and their ticks. ISME J. 14, 1768–1782 (2020). This viromics study reveals unexpectedly high and stable RNA virus diversity in Antarctic penguins and ticks, positioning penguins as potential long-term virus reservoirs.
Zhang, Y. et al. Viromes and surveys of RNA viruses in camel-derived ticks revealing transmission patterns of novel tick-borne viral pathogens in Kenya. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 10, 1975–1987 (2021).
Xu, L. et al. Tick virome diversity in Hubei Province, China, and the influence of host ecology. Virus Evol. 7, veab089 (2021).
Ni, X. B. et al. Metavirome of 31 tick species provides a compendium of 1,801 RNA virus genomes. Nat. Microbiol. 8, 162–173 (2023). This landmark large-scale viromics study catalogues 1,801 RNA virus genomes from 31 tick species, establishing ticks as major reservoirs of RNA virus diversity.
Tian, D. et al. Virome specific to tick genus with distinct ecogeographical distribution. Microbiome 13, 57 (2025).
Ye, R. Z. et al. Virome diversity shaped by genetic evolution and ecological landscape of Haemaphysalis longicornis. Microbiome 12, 35 (2024). This study links tick genetic clades and ecological factors to distinct virome compositions, revealing how evolution and environment jointly shape tick–virus interactions.
Zhou, H. et al. The human-infection potential of emerging tick-borne viruses is a global public health concern. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 21, 215–217 (2023).
Wu, Y. F. et al. Emerging tick-borne diseases in mainland China over the past decade: a systematic review and mapping analysis. Lancet Reg. Health West. Pac. 59, 101599 (2025). This systematic review of emerging tick-borne diseases across China highlights urgent needs for improved diagnostics and surveillance.
World Health Organization. Pathogens prioritization: a scientific framework for epidemic and pandemic research preparedness. WHO https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/pathogens-prioritization-a-scientific-framework-for-epidemic-and-pandemic-research-preparedness (2024).
Shi, J., Hu, Z., Deng, F. & Shen, S. Tick-borne viruses. Virol. Sin. 33, 21–43 (2018).
Hawman, D. W. & Feldmann, H. Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic fever virus. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 21, 463–477 (2023).
Worku, D. A. Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE): from tick to pathology. J. Clin. Med. 12, 6859 (2023).
Moming, A. et al. The known and unknown of global tick-borne viruses. Viruses 16, 1807 (2024).
Fang, L. Q. et al. Emerging tick-borne infections in mainland China: an increasing public health threat. Lancet Infect. Dis. 15, 1467–1479 (2015).
Madison-Antenucci, S. et al. Emerging tick-borne diseases. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 33, e00083-18 (2020).
Papa, A. et al. Cytokines as biomarkers of Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever. J. Med. Virol. 88, 21–27 (2016).
Hills, S. L., Poehling, K. A., Chen, W. H. & Staples, J. E. Tick-borne encephalitis vaccine: recommendations of the advisory committee on immunization practices, United States, 2023. MMWR Recomm. Rep. 72, 1–29 (2023).
John, J. K. Kyasanur Forest disease: a status update. Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci. 2, 329–336 (2014).
de Souza, W. M. & Weaver, S. C. Effects of climate change and human activities on vector-borne diseases. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 22, 476–491 (2024). This review summarizes how climate change and human activities contribute to the distribution of vectors and transmission of vector-borne diseases worldwide.
Li, C. et al. The diversity, pathogenic spectrum, and ecological significance of arthropod viruses. Trends Microbiol. 33, 826–838 (2025).
Schoch, C. L. et al. NCBI taxonomy: a comprehensive update on curation, resources and tools. Database 2020, baaa062 (2020).
Begum, F., Wisseman, C. L. & Casals, J. Tick-borne viruses of West Pakistan. IV. Viruses similar to or identical with, Crimean hemorrhagic fever (Congo-Semunya), Wad Medani and Pak Argas 461 isolated from ticks of the Changa Manga Forest, Lahore District, and of Hunza, Gilgit Agency, W. Pakistan. Am. J. Epidemiol. 92, 197–202 (1970).
Topciu, V., Roşiu, N., Arcan, P. & Csaky, N. Isolation of a new arbovirus strain (Kemerovo group) from Ixodes ricinus ticks in the south-western region of Romania. Acta Virol. 14, 412 (1970).
Lvov, D. K. et al. ‘Zaliv Terpeniya’ virus, a new Uukuniemi group arbovirus isolated from Ixodes (Ceratixodes) putus Pick.-Camb. 1878 on Tyuleniy Island (Sakhalin region) and Commodore Islands (Kamchatsk region). Arch. Gesamte Virusforsch. 41, 165–169 (1973).
Main, A., Downs, W., Shope, R. & Wallis, R. Great island and bauline: two new kemerovo group orbiviruses from Ixodes uriae in eastern Canada. J. Med. Entomol. 10, 229–235 (1973).
Yunker, C. E., Clifford, C. M., Keirans, J. E., Thomas, L. A. & Cory, J. Tickborne viruses in western North America. II. Yaquina head, a new arbovirus of the Kemerovo group isolated from Ixodes uriae. J. Med. Entomol. 10, 264–269 (1973).
Converse, J. D., Hoogstraal, H., Moussa, M. I., Casals, J. & Kaiser, M. N. Pretoria virus: a new African agent in the tickborne Dera Ghazi Khan (DGK) group and antigenic relationships within the DGK group. J. Med. Entomol. 12, 202–205 (1975).
Hoogstraal, H., Guirgis, S. S., Khalil, G. M. & Kaiser, M. N. The subgenus Persicargas (Ixodoidea: Argasidae: Argas). 27. The life cycle of A. (P.) robertsi population samples from Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia, Australia, and Sri Lanka. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public. Health 6, 532–539 (1975).
L’vov, D. K., Kurdanov, M. M., Neronov, V. M., Gromashevskiĭ, V. L. & Skvortsova, T. M. Isolation of Vad-Medani arbovirus from Hyalomma asiaticum Sch. et Schl., 1929 in Turkmen SSR [Russian]. Med. Parazitol. 45, 452–425 (1976).
Clifford, C. M., Hoogstraal, H., Radovsky, F. J., Stiller, D. & Keirans, J. E. Ornithodoros (alectorobius) amblus (Acarina: Ixodoidea: Argasidae): identity, marine bird and human hosts, virus infections, and distribution in Peru. J. Parasitol. 66, 312–323 (1980).
Sreenivasan, M. A., Bhat, H. R., Dandawate, C. N. & Malunjkar, A. S. Muroor virus: a new arbovirus isolated in India from the bat tick (Ornithodoros piriformis). Indian. J. Med. Res. 78, 295–299 (1983).
Dégallier, N. et al. Ecology of tick-borne arboviruses in the Central African Republic [French]. Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot. Filiales 78, 296–310 (1985).
Moss, S. R. & Nuttall, P. A. Isolation of orbiviruses and uukuviruses from puffin ticks. Acta Virol. 29, 158–161 (1985).
Moss, S. R., Petersen, F. & Nuttall, P. A. Tick-borne viruses in Icelandic seabird colonies. Acta Nat. Isl. 32, 1–19 (1986).
Nuttall, P. A., Carey, D., Moss, S. R., Green, B. M. & Spence, R. P. Hughes group viruses (Bunyaviridae) from the seabird tick Ixodes (Ceratixodes) uriae (Acari: Ixodidae). J. Med. Entomol. 23, 437–440 (1986).
Konstaninov, O. K., Butenko, A. M., Bashkirtsev, V. N., Libev, M. B. & Marinina, V. P. Ticks of the family Ixodidae in Guinea and the isolation of arboviruses from them. II. Results of virologic and serologic research [Russian]. Med. Parazitol. 4, 9–13 (1989).
Gordeeva, Z. E. et al. The Hissar virus — a new virus of the family Bunyaviridae — isolated from the argasid tick Argas vulgaris Fil. in Tadzhikistan [Russian]. Med. Parazitol. 6, 34–35 (1990).
Chastel, C., Main, A. J., Bailly-Choumara, H., Le Goff, F. & Le Lay, G. Essaouira and Kala iris: two new orbiviruses of the Kemerovo serogroup, Chenuda complex, isolated from Ornithodoros (Alectorobius) maritimus ticks in Morocco. Acta Virol. 37, 484–492 (1993).
Butenko, A. M. Arbovirus circulation in the Republic of Guinea [Russian]. Med. Parazitol. 2, 40–45 (1996).
Sang, R. et al. Tickborne arbovirus surveillance in market livestock, Nairobi, Kenya. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 12, 1074–1080 (2006).
Al-Khalifa, M. S., Diab, F. M. & Khalil, G. M. Man-threatening viruses isolated from ticks in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Med. J. 28, 1864–1867 (2007).
L’vov, D. K. et al. Taxonomic status of the Tyulek virus (TLKV) (Orthomyxoviridae, Quaranjavirus, Quaranfil group) isolated from the ticks Argas vulgaris Filippova, 1961 (Argasidae) from the birds burrow nest biotopes in the Kyrgyzstan [Russian]. Vopr. Virusol. 59, 28–32 (2014).
Dehhaghi, M. et al. Human tick-borne diseases in Australia. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 9, 3 (2019).
Yadav, P. D. et al. Characterization of novel reoviruses Wad Medani virus (Orbivirus) and Kundal virus (Coltivirus) collected from Hyalomma anatolicum ticks in India during surveillance for Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever. J. Virol. 93, e00106-19 (2019).
Chen, Z. Y. et al. Characteristics of viral ovarian tumor domain protease from two emerging orthonairoviruses and identification of Yezo virus human infections in northeastern China as early as 2012. J. Virol. 99, e0172724 (2025).
Baxter, R. H. G. et al. Arthropod innate immune systems and vector-borne diseases. Biochemistry 56, 907–918 (2017).
Fogaça, A. C. et al. Tick immune system: what is known, the interconnections, the gaps, and the challenges. Front. Immunol. 12, 628054 (2021).
International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. ICTV report chapters by genome. ICTV https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictvreports/ictv_online_report/ (ICTV 2025)
Yu, X. J. et al. Fever with thrombocytopenia associated with a novel bunyavirus in China. N. Engl. J. Med. 364, 1523–1532 (2011).
Zhang, Y. Z. et al. The ecology, genetic diversity, and phylogeny of Huaiyangshan virus in China. J. Virol. 86, 2864–2868 (2012).
O’Brien, C. A. et al. Extended characterisation of five archival tick-borne viruses provides insights for virus discovery in Australian ticks. Parasit. Vectors 15, 59 (2022).
Belhouchet, M. et al. Complete sequence of Great Island virus and comparison with the T2 and outer-capsid proteins of Kemerovo, Lipovnik and Tribec viruses (genus Orbivirus, family Reoviridae). J. Gen. Virol. 91, 2985–2993 (2010).
Guglielmone, A. A. The Hard Ticks of the World: (Acari: Ixodida: Ixodidae) (Springer Netherlands, 2014).
Lvov, D. K. et al. ‘Issyk-Kul’ virus, a new arbovirus isolated from bats and Argas (Carios) vespertilionis (Latr., 1802) in the Kirghiz S.S.R. brief report. Arch. Gesamte Virusforsch. 42, 207–209 (1973).
Kalunda, M. et al. Kasokero virus: a new human pathogen from bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) in Uganda. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 35, 387–392 (1986).
Ma, J. et al. Identification of a new orthonairovirus associated with human febrile illness in China. Nat. Med. 27, 434–439 (2021).
Kodama, F. et al. A novel nairovirus associated with acute febrile illness in Hokkaido, Japan. Nat. Commun. 12, 5539 (2021).
Zhang, X. A. et al. A new orthonairovirus associated with human febrile illness. N. Engl. J. Med. 391, 821–831 (2024).
Zhang, M. Z. et al. Human infection with a novel tickborne orthonairovirus species in China. N. Engl. J. Med. 392, 200–202 (2025).
David-West, T. S., Cooke, A. R. & David-West, A. S. A serological survey of Dugbe virus antibodies in Nigerians. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 69, 358 (1975).
Chastel, C., Bailly-Choumara, H. & Le Lay, G. Natural pathogenicity for man of an antigenic variant of Soldado virus from Morocco [French]. Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot. Filiales 74, 499–505 (1981).
Chastel, C. et al. Can arboviruses from seabird colonies in Brittany infect man? [French]. Rev. Epidemiol. Sante. Publique. 31, 445–457 (1983).
Lvov, D. K. et al. Isolation of Tamdy virus (Bunyaviridae) pathogenic for man from natural sources in central Asia, Kazakhstan and Transcaucasia [Russian]. Vopr. Virusol. 29, 487–490 (1984).
Liu, X. et al. A tentative Tamdy orthonairovirus related to febrile illness in northwestern China. Clin. Infect. Dis. 70, 2155–2160 (2020).
Wang, Y. C. et al. A new nairo-like virus associated with human febrile illness in China. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 10, 1200–1208 (2021).
Chumakov, M. P. A new tick-borne virus disease – Crimean hemorrhagic fever. in Crimean Hemorrhagic Fever (Acute Infectious Capillary Toxicosis) [Russian] (eds Sokolov, A. A. et al.) 13–43 (Izd Otd Primorskoi Armii, 1945).
Khalafalla, A. I. et al. Identification of a novel lineage of Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic fever virus in dromedary camels, United Arab Emirates. J. Gen. Virol. 102, 001473 (2020).
Akhrem-Akhremovich, R. M. Spring–summer fever in Omsk region [Russian]. Proc. Omsk. Med. Inst. 13, 3–16 (1948).
McLean, D. M. & Donohue, W. L. Powassan virus: isolation of virus from a fatal case of encephalitis. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 80, 708–711 (1959).
Wang, Z. D. et al. A new segmented virus associated with human febrile illness in China. N. Engl. J. Med. 380, 2116–2125 (2019).
Kartashov, M. Y. et al. Novel Flavi-like virus in ixodid ticks and patients in Russia. Ticks Tick. Borne Dis. 14, 102101 (2023).
Il’enko, V. I., Smorodincev, A. A., Prozorova, I. N. & Platonov, V. G. Experience in the study of a live vaccine made from the TP-21 strain of Malayan Langat virus. Bull. World Health Organ. 39, 425–431 (1968).
Shope, R. E. Epidemiology of other arthropod-borne flaviviruses infecting humans. Adv. Virus Res. 61, 373–391 (2003).
Batista, W. C. et al. Notification of the first isolation of Cacipacore virus in a human in the State of Rondônia, Brazil. Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop. 44, 528–530 (2011).
Jia, N. et al. Emergence of human infection with Jingmen tick virus in China: a retrospective study. EBioMedicine 43, 317–324 (2019).
Zhang, J. et al. Skin infectome of patients with a tick bite history. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 13, 1113992 (2023).
Zilber, L. A. Spring (spring–summer) endemic tick-borne encephalitis [Russian]. Arkh. Biol. Nauk. 56, 9–37 (1939).
Lindblad, G. A case of tick-borne encephalitis in a dog [Swedish]. Medlemsbl. Sver. veterinärforb. 12, 416–417 (1960).
Work, T. H. et al. Kyasanur Forest disease. III. A preliminary report on the nature of the infection and clinical manifestations in human beings. Indian. J. Med. Sci. 11, 619–645 (1957).
Buxton, D. & Reid, H. W. 120 years of Louping-ill research: an historical perspective from the archive of the Journal of Comparative Pathology. J. Comp. Pathol. 157, 270–275 (2017).
Rivers, T. M. & Schwentker, F. F. Louping ill in man. J. Exp. Med. 59, 669–685 (1934).
Nowotny, N. et al. Neurotropic tick-borne flavivirus in alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra), Austria, 2017, Italy, 2023. Viruses 17, 122 (2025).
Taylor, R. M., Hurlbut, H. S., Work, T. H., Kingston, J. R. & Hoogstraal, H. Arboviruses isolated from Argas ticks in Egypt: Quaranfil, Chenuda, and Nyamanini. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 15, 76–86 (1966).
Kosoy, O. I. et al. Novel Thogotovirus associated with febrile illness and death, United States, 2014. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 21, 760–764 (2015).
Sokhey, J., Dandawate, C. N., Gogate, S. S., Ghosh, S. N. & Gupta, N. P. Serological studies on Dhori virus. Indian. J. Med. Res. 66, 726–731 (1977).
Tran, N. T. B. et al. Zoonotic infection with Oz virus, a novel thogotovirus. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 28, 436–439 (2022).
Moore, D. L. et al. Arthropod-borne viral infections of man in Nigeria, 1964–1970. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 69, 49–64 (1975).
Davies, F. G., Soi, R. K. & Wariru, B. N. Abortion in sheep caused by Thogoto virus. Vet. Rec. 115, 654 (1984).
McMullan, L. K. et al. A new phlebovirus associated with severe febrile illness in Missouri. N. Engl. J. Med. 367, 834–841 (2012).
Calisher, C. H. & Goodpasture, H. C. Human infection with Bhanja virus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 24, 1040–1042 (1975).
Hubalek, Z. & Halouzka, J. Arthropod-borne viruses of vertebrates in Europe. Acta Sci. Nat. Acad. Sci. Bohemoslov. 30, 1–95 (1996).
Dong, Z. et al. Human Tacheng tick virus 2 infection, China, 2019. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 27, 594–598 (2021).
Matsuu, A. et al. Natural severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus infection in domestic cats in Japan. Vet. Microbiol. 236, 108346 (2019).
Florio, L., Stewart, M. O. & Mugrage, E. R. The experimental transmission of Colorado tick fever. J. Exp. Med. 80, 165–188 (1944).
Chastel, C. Erve and Eyach: two viruses isolated in France, neuropathogenic for man and widely distributed in Western Europe [French]. Bull. Acad. Natl. Med. 182, 801–810 (1998).
Chumakov, M. P. Report on the isolation from Ixodes persulcatus ticks and from patients in western Siberia of a virus differing from the agent of tick-borne encephalitis. Acta Virol. 7, 82–83 (1963).
Moule, L. History of Veterinary Medicine [French] 38 (Maulde, 1891).
Quan, L. et al. Identification of a new chuvirus associated with febrile illness in China. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-104938/v1 (2020).
Pavri, K. M. et al. Isolation of Wanowrie virus from brain of a fatal human case from Sri Lanka. Indian. J. Med. Res. 64, 557–561 (1976).
Montgomery, R. E. On a form of swine fever occurring in British east Africa (Kenya Colony). J. Comp. Pathol. Ther. 34, 159–191 (1921).
MacDonald, R. A. S. Pseudo-urticaria of cattle. In Government of Northern Rhodesia Department of Animal Health Annual Report for the year 1930 20–21 (Government of Northern Rhodesia, 1931).
Kobayashi, D. et al. Detection of Japanese encephalitis virus RNA in host-questing ticks in Japan, 2019–2020. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 106, 1725–1728 (2022).
Schmidt, J. R. & Said, M. I. Isolation of West Nile virus from the African bird Argasid, Argas reflexus hermanni, in Egypt. J. Med. Entomol. 1, 83–86 (1964).
Fontenille, D. et al. New vectors of Rift Valley fever in West Africa. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 4, 289–293 (1998).
Lwande, O. W. et al. Isolation of tick and mosquito-borne arboviruses from ticks sampled from livestock and wild animal hosts in Ijara District, Kenya. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 13, 637–642 (2013).
Yang, Z. et al. Full genome characterization and evolutionary analysis of Banna virus isolated from Culicoides, mosquitoes and ticks in Yunnan, China. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 13, 1283580 (2023).
Bakker, J. W. et al. Ixodes ricinus as potential vector for Usutu virus. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 18, e0012172 (2024).
Liu, Z. et al. Molecular detection and phylogenetic analysis of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus in ticks in Jilin Province, northeastern China. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 85, 393–398 (2023).
Yang, M. et al. Isolation, identification and pathogenic characteristics of tick-derived parainfluenza virus 5 in northeast China. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 69, 3300–3316 (2022).
Rehse-Küpper, B., Casals, J., Rehse, E. & Ackermann, R. Eyach-an arthropod-borne virus related to Colorado tick fever virus in the Federal Republic of Germany. Acta Virol. 20, 339–342 (1976).
Lvov, D. K. et al. Virus ‘Tamdy’—a new arbovirus, isolated in the Uzbee S.S.R. and Turkmen S.S.R. from ticks Hyalomma asiaticum asiaticum Schulee et Schlottke, 1929, and Hyalomma plumbeum plumbeum Panzer, 1796. Arch. Virol. 51, 15–21 (1976).
Carpenter, S., Mellor, P. S., Fall, A. G., Garros, C. & Venter, G. J. African horse sickness virus: history, transmission, and current status. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 62, 343–358 (2017).
Plowright, W., Parker, J. & Peirce, M. A. African swine fever virus in ticks (Ornithodoros moubata, murray) collected from animal burrows in Tanzania. Nature 221, 1071–1073 (1969).
Kumar, N., Sharma, S. & Tripathi, B. N. Pathogenicity and virulence of lumpy skin disease virus: a comprehensive update. Virulence 16, 2495108 (2025).
Yamanaka, A. et al. Direct transmission of severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus from domestic cat to veterinary personnel. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 26, 2994–2998 (2020).
Chiffi, G., Grandgirard, D., Leib, S. L., Chrdle, A. & Růžek, D. Tick-borne encephalitis: a comprehensive review of the epidemiology, virology, and clinical picture. Rev. Med. Virol. 33, e2470 (2023).
Neelakanta, G. & Sultana, H. Tick saliva and salivary glands: what do we know so far on their role in arthropod blood feeding and pathogen transmission. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 11, 816547 (2021).
National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China. Diagnosis and treatment protocol for severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome [Chinese]. NHC https://www.nhc.gov.cn/ylyjs/gzdt/202312/7553bd72c9934f4ca72327b361d111be/files/1734003067772_77837.pdf (2023).
World Health Organization. Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic fever. WHO https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/crimean-congo-haemorrhagic-fever (2025).
Lindquist, L. & Vapalahti, O. Tick-borne encephalitis. Lancet 371, 1861–1871 (2008).
Peng, C. et al. Bandavirus dabieense: a review of epidemiology, clinical characteristics, pathophysiology, treatment and prevention. Virulence 16, 2520343 (2025).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Clinical signs and symptoms of Powassan virus disease. CDC https://www.cdc.gov/powassan/hcp/clinical-signs/index.html (2025).
Dokuzoguz, B. et al. Severity scoring index for Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever and the impact of ribavirin and corticosteroids on fatality. Clin. Infect. Dis. 57, 1270–1274 (2013).
Ergonul, O., Celikbas, A., Baykam, N., Eren, S. & Dokuzoguz, B. Analysis of risk-factors among patients with Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic fever virus infection: severity criteria revisited. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 12, 551–554 (2006).
Netesov, S. V. & Conrad, J. L. Emerging infectious diseases in Russia, 1990–1999. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 7, 1–5 (2001).
Lani, R. et al. Tick-borne viruses: a review from the perspective of therapeutic approaches. Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 5, 457–465 (2014).
Kaur, M., Adam, M. & Mladinich, M. C. Pathogenicity and virulence of Powassan virus. Virulence 16, 2523887 (2025).
Ruzek, D. et al. Tick-borne encephalitis in Europe and Russia: review of pathogenesis, clinical features, therapy, and vaccines. Antivir. Res. 164, 23–51 (2019).
Yu, K. M. & Park, S. J. Tick-borne viruses: epidemiology, pathogenesis, and animal models. One Health 19, 100903 (2024).
Feng, K. et al. Pathogenesis and virulence of Heartland virus. Virulence 15, 2348252 (2024).
Kemenesi, G. & Bányai, K. Tick-borne flaviviruses, with a focus on Powassan virus. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 32, e00106-17 (2019).
Cui, N. et al. Long-term clinical sequelae in severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome: a longitudinal cohort study. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 19, e0013276 (2025).
Khan, A. S. et al. An outbreak of Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever in the United Arab Emirates, 1994–1995. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 57, 519–525 (1997).
Süss, J. Tick-borne encephalitis in Europe and beyond—the epidemiological situation as of 2007. Eurosurveillance 13, 18916 (2008).
Casel, M. A., Park, S. J. & Choi, Y. K. Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus: emerging novel phlebovirus and their control strategy. Exp. Mol. Med. 53, 713–722 (2021).
US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention & National Institutes of Health. Biosafety in microbiological and bBiomedical laboratories. CDC https://www.cdc.gov/labs/bmbl/index.html (2020).
Wang, X. et al. Tick-borne viruses: moving the dial on diagnostics with diverse technological advances. Lancet Microbe 11, 101234 (2025).
Torres Montaguth, O. E., Buddle, S., Morfopoulou, S. & Breuer, J. Clinical metagenomics for diagnosis and surveillance of viral pathogens. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 24, 61–75 (2026). This review summarizes the applications, advantages and challenges of metagenomics in clinical diagnostics and public health surveillance, emphasizing bringing metagenomics into routine service in clinical and public health laboratories.
Zhang, M. Z. et al. A series of patients infected with the emerging tick-borne Yezo virus in China: an active surveillance and genomic analysis. Lancet Infect. Dis. 25, 390–398 (2025).
Marra, A. R. et al. Metagenomic next-generation sequencing in patients with fever of unknown origin: a comprehensive systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 110, 116465 (2024).
Pustijanac, E. et al. Tick-borne encephalitis virus: a comprehensive review of transmission, pathogenesis, epidemiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and prevention. Microorganisms 11, 1634 (2023).
Bogovic, P. & Strle, F. Tick-borne encephalitis: a review of epidemiology, clinical characteristics, and management. World J. Clin. Cases 3, 430–441 (2015).
Sanchez-Vicente, S. et al. Capture sequencing enables sensitive detection of tick-borne agents in human blood. Front. Microbiol. 13, 837621 (2022).
Kamaraj, U. S. et al. Application of a targeted-enrichment methodology for full-genome sequencing of Dengue 1-4, Chikungunya and Zika viruses directly from patient samples. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 13, e0007184 (2019).
Shrivastava, N. et al. Development of double antibody sandwich ELISA as potential diagnostic tool for rapid detection of Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus. Sci. Rep. 11, 14699 (2021).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Arboviral diseases, neuroinvasive and non-neuroinvasive 2015 case definition. CDC https://ndc.services.cdc.gov/case-definitions/arboviral-diseases-neuroinvasive-and-non-neuroinvasive-2015 (2021).
Piantadosi, A. & Kanjilal, S. Diagnostic approach for arboviral infections in the United States. J. Clin. Microbiol. 58, e01926-19 (2020).
Musso, D. & Despres, P. Serological diagnosis of flavivirus-associated human infections. Diagnostics 10, 302 (2020).
Brêchet, A. et al. Tick-borne encephalitis virus seroprevalence and infection incidence in Switzerland, 2020–2021. Sci. Rep. 15, 8346 (2025).
Bodur, H., Akinci, E., Ascioglu, S., Öngürü, P. & Uyar, Y. Subclinical infections with Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, Turkey. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 18, 640–642 (2012).
Du, Y. et al. Seroprevalance of antibodies specific for severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus and the discovery of asymptomatic infections in Henan Province, China. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 13, e0007242 (2019).
Li, H. et al. Epidemiological and clinical features of laboratory-diagnosed severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome in China, 2011–17: a prospective observational study. Lancet Infect. Dis. 18, 1127–1137 (2018).
Li, H. et al. Clinical effect and antiviral mechanism of T-705 in treating severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome. Signal. Transduct. Target. Ther. 6, 145 (2021).
Fabara, S. P. et al. Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever beyond ribavirin: a systematic review. Cureus 13, e17842 (2021).
Zhang, S. et al. Discovery and characterization of potent broadly neutralizing antibodies from human survivors of severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome. EBioMedicine 111, 105481 (2025).
Matveev, A. et al. Characterization of neutralizing monoclonal antibody against tick-borne encephalitis virus in vivo. Vaccine 38, 4309–4315 (2020).
Agudelo, M. et al. Broad and potent neutralizing human antibodies to tick-borne flaviviruses protect mice from disease. J. Exp. Med. 218, e20210236 (2021).
Taba, P. et al. EAN consensus review on prevention, diagnosis and management of tick-borne encephalitis. Eur. J. Neurol. 24, 1214-e61 (2017).
Gilbert, L. The impacts of climate change on ticks and tick-borne disease risk. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 66, 373–388 (2021).
Romanello, M. et al. The 2024 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: facing record-breaking threats from delayed action. Lancet 404, 1847–1896 (2024).
Tanski, N., Hänninen, J., Kalliola, R. & Sormunen, J. J. Ghosts of weather past? Impact of past and present weather-related factors on the seasonal questing activity of Ixodes ricinus nymphs in southwestern Finland. Parasit. Vectors 18, 283 (2025).
Bouchard, C. et al. Increased risk of tick-borne diseases with climate and environmental changes. Can. Commun. Dis. Rep. 45, 83–89 (2019).
MacDonald, A. J., McComb, S., O’Neill, C., Padgett, K. A. & Larsen, A. E. Projected climate and land use change alter western blacklegged tick phenology, seasonal host-seeking suitability and human encounter risk in California. Glob. Chang. Biol. 26, 5459–5474 (2020).
Jore, S. et al. Multi-source analysis reveals latitudinal and altitudinal shifts in range of Ixodes ricinus at its northern distribution limit. Parasit. Vectors 4, 84 (2011).
Lindgren, E., Tälleklint, L. & Polfeldt, T. Impact of climatic change on the northern latitude limit and population density of the disease-transmitting European tick Ixodes ricinus. Environ. Health Perspect. 108, 119 (2000).
Grandi, G. et al. First records of adult Hyalomma marginatum and H. rufipes ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) in Sweden. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 11, 101403 (2020).
Tokarevich, N. et al. Impact of air temperature variation on the ixodid ticks habitat and tick-borne encephalitis incidence in the Russian Arctic: the case of the Komi Republic. Int. J. Circumpolar Health 76, 1298882 (2017).
Kumar, P. et al. Climate change and its role in the emergence of new tick-borne Yezo virus. N. Microbes N. Infect. 60–61, 101423 (2024).
Gömer, A., Lang, A., Janshoff, S., Steinmann, J. & Steinmann, E. Epidemiology and global spread of emerging tick-borne Alongshan virus. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 13, 2404271 (2024).
Yuan, H. X. et al. Genetic diversity and expanded epidemic area of novel tick-borne pathogen wetland virus in ticks, wild and domestic animals, and patient in China. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 14, 2502003 (2025).
Ogden, N. H., Ben Beard, C., Ginsberg, H. S. & Tsao, J. I. Possible effects of climate change on ixodid ticks and the pathogens they transmit: predictions and observations. J. Med. Entomol. 58, 1536–1545 (2021).
Weiler, M., Duscher, G. G., Wetscher, M. & Walochnik, J. Tick abundance: a one year study on the impact of flood events along the banks of the river Danube, Austria. Exp. Appl. Acarol. 71, 151–157 (2017).
Perret, J. L., Guerin, P. M., Diehl, P. A., Vlimant, M. & Gern, L. Darkness induces mobility, and saturation deficit limits questing duration, in the tick Ixodes ricinus. J. Exp. Biol. 206, 1809–1815 (2003).
Tagwireyi, P., Ndebele, M. & Chikurunhe, W. Climate change diminishes the potential habitat of the bont tick (Amblyomma hebraeum): evidence from Mashonaland Central Province, Zimbabwe. Parasit. Vectors 15, 237 (2022).
Hancock, P. A., Brackley, R. & Palmer, S. C. F. Modelling the effect of temperature variation on the seasonal dynamics of Ixodes ricinus tick populations. Int. J. Parasitol. 41, 513–522 (2011).
Socolovschi, C., Raoult, D. & Parola, P. Influence of temperature on the attachment of Rhipicephalus sanguineus ticks on rabbits. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 15, 326–327 (2009).
Cao, B. et al. Ticks jump in a warmer world: global distribution shifts of main pathogenic ticks are associated with future climate change. J. Environ. Manage. 374, 124129 (2025).
Portugal, J. S. III, Wills, R. & Goddard, J. Laboratory studies of questing behavior in colonized nymphal Amblyomma maculatum ticks (Acari: Ixodidae). J. Med. Entomol. 57, 1480–1487 (2020).
Jugovic, J., Babič, A., Kuhelj, A. & Ivović, V. Spatial distribution of Ixodes ricinus in forest habitats: a comparative study of the northern and southern slopes of Mount Slavnik, Slovenia. Parasite 32, 46 (2025).
Tian, D. et al. Distribution and diversity of ticks determined by environmental factors in Ningxia, China. One Health 19, 100897 (2024).
Adams, D. R., Kays, R. & Reiskind, M. H. Environmental correlates and fine-scale distribution of Amblyomma americanum, Ehrlichia spp., and Rickettsia amblyommatis at a single site in south-central Virginia. Parasit. Vectors 18, 393 (2025).
Jia, N. et al. Large-scale comparative analyses of tick genomes elucidate their genetic diversity and vector capacities. Cell 182, 1328–1340.e13 (2020). This work generates high-quality genomes of six tick species and reveals how ecological and geographic factors shape tick genetic diversity and pathogen composition.
Bellman, S. et al. Mapping the distribution of Amblyomma americanum in Georgia, USA. Parasit. Vectors 17, 62 (2024).
Dobson, A. P. et al. Ecology and economics for pandemic prevention. Science 369, 379–381 (2020).
Doi, K., Kato, T., Tabata, I. & Hayama, S. I. Mapping the potential distribution of ticks in the western Kanto region, Japan: predictions based on land-use, climate, and wildlife. Insects 12, 1095 (2021).
Sun, R. X. et al. Mapping the distribution of tick-borne encephalitis in mainland China. Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 8, 631–639 (2017).
Liu, J., Li, S., Ouyang, Z., Tam, C. & Chen, X. Ecological and socioeconomic effects of China’s policies for ecosystem services. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105, 9477–9482 (2008).
Hua, F. et al. Opportunities for biodiversity gains under the world’s largest reforestation programme. Nat. Commun. 7, 12717 (2016).
Yu, Y., Zhao, W., Martinez-Murillo, J. F. & Pereira, P. Loess Plateau: from degradation to restoration. Sci. Total. Environ. 738, 140206 (2020).
Liu, K. et al. Epidemiologic features and environmental risk factors of severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome, Xinyang, China. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 8, e2820 (2014).
Levi, T., Keesing, F., Holt, R. D., Barfield, M. & Ostfeld, R. S. Quantifying dilution and amplification in a community of hosts for tick-borne pathogens. Ecol. Appl. 26, 484–498 (2016).
Occhibove, F., Kenobi, K., Swain, M. & Risley, C. An eco-epidemiological modeling approach to investigate dilution effect in two different tick-borne pathosystems. Ecol. Appl. 32, e2550 (2022).
Ogden, N. H. & Tsao, J. I. Biodiversity and Lyme disease: dilution or amplification? Epidemics 1, 196–206 (2009).
Fournet, F., Simard, F. & Fontenille, D. Green cities and vector-borne diseases: emerging concerns and opportunities. Euro. Surveill. 29, 2300548 (2024). This perspective highlights how urban greening can influence vector populations and pathogen transmission, underscoring the need to assess its effects on infectious disease risk.
Bourdin, A. et al. Forests harbor more ticks than other habitats: a meta-analysis. For. Ecol. Manag. 541, 121081 (2023).
Romiti, F. et al. Acarological risk of exposure to tick-borne pathogens in urban green areas of Rome, Italy. Acta Trop. 269, 107750 (2025).
VanAcker, M. C. et al. Resource selection by New York City deer reveals the effective interface between wildlife, zoonotic hazards and humans. Ecol. Lett. 26, 2029–2042 (2023).
Heylen, D. et al. Ticks and tick-borne diseases in the city: role of landscape connectivity and green space characteristics in a metropolitan area. Sci. Total. Environ. 670, 941–949 (2019).
Liu, J. et al. An integrated data analysis reveals distribution, hosts, and pathogen diversity of Haemaphysalis concinna. Parasit. Vectors 17, 92 (2024).
Peňazziová, K. et al. Serologic investigation on tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Tribeč virus infections in wild birds. Microorganisms 10, 2397 (2022).
Drelich, A., Andreassen, Å, Vainio, K., Kruszyński, P. & Wąsik, T. J. Prevalence of tick-borne encephalitis virus in a highly urbanized and low risk area in southern Poland. Ticks Tick. Borne Dis. 5, 663–667 (2014).
Yuan, F. et al. The first discovery of severe fever with thrombocytopenia virus in the center of metropolitan Beijing, China. Virol. Sin. 39, 875–881 (2024).
Rubel, F. Hyalomma aegyptium: observed global distribution, imported specimens, preferred hosts and vector competence. Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 16, 102438 (2025).
Růžek, D., Yakimenko, V. V., Karan, L. S. & Tkachev, S. E. Omsk haemorrhagic fever. Lancet 376, 2104–2113 (2010).
World Health Organization. One Health. WHO https://www.who.int/health-topics/one-health#tab=tab_1 (2025).
Makwarela, T. G., Seoraj-Pillai, N. & Nangammbi, T. C. Tick control strategies: critical insights into chemical, biological, physical, and integrated approaches for effective hard tick management. Vet. Sci. 12, 114 (2025).
Le Dortz, L. L. et al. Tick-borne diseases in Europe: current prevention, control tools and the promise of aptamers. Vet. Parasitol. 328, 110190 (2024).
Pathak, V. M. et al. Current status of pesticide effects on environment, human health and it’s eco-friendly management as bioremediation: a comprehensive review. Front. Microbiol. 13, 962619 (2022).
Abbas, R. Z., Zaman, M. A., Colwell, D. D., Gilleard, J. & Iqbal, Z. Acaricide resistance in cattle ticks and approaches to its management: the state of play. Vet. Parasitol. 203, 6–20 (2014).
Fulk, A., Huang, W. & Agusto, F. Exploring the effects of prescribed fire on tick spread and propagation in a spatial setting. Comput. Math. Methods Med. 2022, 5031806 (2022).
Gleim, E. R. et al. Frequent prescribed fires can reduce risk of tick-borne diseases. Sci. Rep. 9, 9974 (2019).
Keesing, F. et al. Effects of tick-control interventions on tick abundance, human encounters with ticks, and incidence of tickborne diseases in residential neighborhoods, New York, USA. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 28, 957–966 (2022).
Rajput, M. et al. Entomopathogenic fungi as alternatives to chemical acaricides: challenges, opportunities and prospects for sustainable tick control. Insects 15, 1017 (2024).
Ramos, R. A. N. et al. The role of parasitoid wasps, Ixodiphagus spp. (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), in tick control. Pathogens 12, 676 (2023).
Zhang, D. D. Tick chemosensation and implications for novel control strategies. Curr. Opin. Insect Sci. 65, 101249 (2024). This review highlights tick chemosensory systems as rational molecular targets for developing ecofriendly control agents, with opportunities enabled by tick genomics and functional characterization.
Rodríguez-Mallon, A. The Bm86 discovery: a revolution in the development of anti-tick vaccines. Pathogens 12, 231 (2023).
Kabi, F. et al. Evaluation of effectiveness and safety of Subolesin anti-tick vaccine in Ugandan multi-site field trial. NPJ Vaccines 9, 174 (2024).
de la Fuente, J. et al. Anti-tick vaccine in Uganda—from bench to field. Vaccine 45, 126695 (2025).
Parthasarathi, B. C. et al. Co-immunization efficacy of recombinant antigens against Rhipicephalus microplus and Hyalomma anatolicum tick infestations. Pathogens 12, 433 (2023).
Frank, M. G. et al. Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus for clinicians—epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and prevention. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 30, 854–863 (2024).
Addo, S. O. et al. Knowledge, attitude and practices of abattoir workers in Kumasi towards ticks and tick-borne pathogens. Public. Health Chall. 4, e70167 (2025).
Burtis, J. C., Foster, E., Eisen, R. J. & Eisen, L. Willingness and capacity of publicly-funded vector control programs in the USA to engage in tick management. Parasit. Vectors 17, 316 (2024).
Gabriel, A. N. A. et al. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices toward ticks and tick-borne diseases: a cross-sectional study in Rwanda. BMC Public. Health 25, 1936 (2025).
Semper, A. E. et al. Research and product development for Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic fever: priorities for 2024–30. Lancet Infect. Dis. 25, e223–e234 (2025). This work presents updated priorities for CCHFV research and development, emphasizing One Health approaches to diagnostics, therapeutics, vaccines and transmission control.
Hawman, D. W. et al. A replicating RNA vaccine confers protection against Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever in cynomolgus macaques. EBioMedicine 115, 105698 (2025).
Zhang, M. et al. A candidate tick-borne encephalitis virus vaccine based on virus-like particles induces specific cellular and humoral immunity in mice. J. Integr. Agric. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jia.2024.09.024 (2024).
Bhatia, B. et al. Single-dose VSV-based vaccine protects against Kyasanur Forest disease in nonhuman primates. Sci. Adv. 9, eadj1428 (2023).
Ben Said, M. & Kratou, M. Exploring approaches and advancements in the development and evaluation of multi-epitope subunit vaccines against tick-borne viruses. Vet. Microbiol. 306, 110577 (2025).
Sciinov Conference. AI-driven mRNA vaccine targets dangerous tick-borne disease. oligo-nucleotide.com https://oligo-nucleotide.com/news/ai-driven-mrna-vaccine-targets-dangerous-tick-borne-disease/ (2025).
Inci, A., Yildirim, A., Duzlu, O., Doganay, M. & Aksoy, S. Tick-borne diseases in Turkey: a review based on One Health perspective. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 10, e0005021 (2016).
Johnson, N. et al. One Health approach to tick and tick-borne disease surveillance in the United Kingdom. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health 19, 5833 (2022).
Inam, S. A. A review of artificial intelligence for predicting climate driven infectious disease outbreaks to enhance global health resilience. Discov. Public. Health 22, 738 (2025).
