Hung, E. C. et al. Detection of SARS coronavirus RNA in the cerebrospinal fluid of a patient with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Clin. Chem. 49, 2108–2109. https://doi.org/10.1373/clinchem.2003.025437 (2003).
Yeh, E. A., Collins, A., Cohen, M. E., Duffner, P. K. & Faden, H. Detection of coronavirus in the central nervous system of a child with acute disseminated encephalomyelitis. Pediatrics 113, e73–e76. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.113.1.e73 (2004).
Umakanthan, S. et al. Origin, transmission, diagnosis and management of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Postgrad. Med. J. 96, 753–758. https://doi.org/10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-138234 (2020).
Chen, N. et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: A descriptive study. Lancet 395, 507–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30211-7 (2020).
Harapan, B. N. & Yoo, H. J. Neurological symptoms, manifestations, and complications associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19). J. Neurol. 268, 3059–3071. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-021-10406-y (2021).
Shehata, G. A. et al. Neurological complications of COVID-19: Underlying mechanisms and management. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 22(8), 4081. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22084081 (2021).
Mao, L. et al. Neurologic manifestations of hospitalized patients with coronavirus disease 2019 in Wuhan China. JAMA Neurol. 77, 683–690. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.1127 (2020).
Meinhardt, J. et al. Olfactory transmucosal SARS-CoV-2 invasion as a port of central nervous system entry in individuals with COVID-19. Nat. Neurosci. 24, 168–175. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-020-00758-5 (2021).
Li, Y. C., Bai, W. Z. & Hashikawa, T. The neuroinvasive potential of SARS-CoV2 may play a role in the respiratory failure of COVID-19 patients. J. Med. Virol. 92, 552–555. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25728 (2020).
Song, W. J. et al. Confronting COVID-19-associated cough and the post-COVID syndrome: Role of viral neurotropism, neuroinflammation, and neuroimmune responses. Lancet Respir. Med. 9, 533–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(21)00125-9 (2021).
Hoffmann, M. et al. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell 181, 271–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.02.052 (2020).
Cantuti-Castelvetri, L. et al. Neuropilin-1 facilitates SARS-CoV-2 cell entry and infectivity. Science 370, 856–860. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abd2985 (2020).
Daly, J. L. et al. Neuropilin-1 is a host factor for SARS-CoV-2 infection. Science 370, 861–865. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abd3072 (2020).
Avdonin, P. P., Rybakova, E. Y., Trufanov, S. K. & Avdonin, P. V. SARS-CoV-2 receptors and their involvement in cell infection. Biochem. (Mosc) Suppl. Ser. A Membr. Cell Biol. 17, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1990747822060034 (2023).
Jackson, C. B., Farzan, M., Chen, B. & Choe, H. Mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 entry into cells. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 23, 3–20. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41580-021-00418-x (2022).
Butowt, R. & von Bartheld, C. S. The route of SARS-CoV-2 to brain infection: Have we been barking up the wrong tree? Mol. Neurodegener. 17, 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13024-022-00529-9 (2022).
Bilinska, K., von Bartheld, C. S. & Butowt, R. Expression of the ACE2 virus entry protein in the nervus terminalis reveals the potential for an alternative route to brain infection in COVID-19. Front. Cell Neurosci. 15, 674123. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2021.674123 (2021).
Ortiz, M. E. et al. Heterogeneous expression of the SARS-coronavirus-2 receptor ACE2 in the human respiratory tract. EBioMedicine 60, 102976. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2020.102976 (2020).
Gao, C. C. et al. Differential transcriptomic landscapes of multiple organs from SARS-CoV-2 early infected rhesus macaques. Protein Cell 13, 920–939. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13238-022-00915-5 (2022).
Wan, D. et al. Neurological complications and infection mechanism of SARS-COV-2. Signal Transduct. Target Ther. 6, 406. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-021-00818-7 (2021).
Vitale-Cross, L., Szalayova, I., Scoggins, A., Palkovits, M. & Mezey, E. SARS-CoV-2 entry sites are present in all structural elements of the human glossopharyngeal and vagal nerves: Clinical implications. bioRxiv https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.12.30.474580 (2022).
Ellenberger, H. H. & Feldman, J. L. Brainstem connections of the rostral ventral respiratory group of the rat. Brain Res. 513, 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(90)91086-v (1990).
Basinger, H. & Hogg, J. P. in StatPearls (2024).
Netland, J., Meyerholz, D. K., Moore, S., Cassell, M. & Perlman, S. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection causes neuronal death in the absence of encephalitis in mice transgenic for human ACE2. J. Virol. 82, 7264–7275. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00737-08 (2008).
Class, J. et al. Evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in the murine central nervous system drives viral diversification. Nat. Microbiol. 9, 2383–2394. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-024-01786-8 (2024).
Riyaz Tramboo, S. et al. The critical impacts of cytokine storms in respiratory disorders. Heliyon 10, e29769. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e29769 (2024).
Ragab, D., Salah Eldin, H., Taeimah, M., Khattab, R. & Salem, R. The COVID-19 cytokine storm; What we know so far. Front. Immunol. 11, 1446. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.01446 (2020).
Chen, G. et al. Clinical and immunological features of severe and moderate coronavirus disease 2019. J. Clin. Invest. 130, 2620–2629. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI137244 (2020).
Huang, C. et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan China. Lancet 395, 497–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5 (2020).
Fernandez-Castaneda, A. et al. Mild respiratory COVID can cause multi-lineage neural cell and myelin dysregulation. Cell 185, 2452–2468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2022.06.008 (2022).
Woodburn, S. C., Bollinger, J. L. & Wohleb, E. S. The semantics of microglia activation: Neuroinflammation, homeostasis, and stress. J. Neuroinflam. 18, 258. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-021-02309-6 (2021).
Skaper, S. D., Facci, L., Zusso, M. & Giusti, P. An inflammation-centric view of neurological disease: Beyond the neuron. Front. Cell Neurosci. 12, 72. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2018.00072 (2018).
Paolicelli, R. C. et al. Synaptic pruning by microglia is necessary for normal brain development. Science 333, 1456–1458. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1202529 (2011).
Lee, H. G., Lee, J. H., Flausino, L. E. & Quintana, F. J. Neuroinflammation: An astrocyte perspective. Sci. Transl. Med. 15, eadi7828. https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.adi7828 (2023).
Lawrence, J. M., Schardien, K., Wigdahl, B. & Nonnemacher, M. R. Roles of neuropathology-associated reactive astrocytes: A systematic review. Acta Neuropathol. Commun. 11, 42. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40478-023-01526-9 (2023).
Joshi, A. U. et al. Fragmented mitochondria released from microglia trigger A1 astrocytic response and propagate inflammatory neurodegeneration. Nat. Neurosci. 22, 1635–1648. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-019-0486-0 (2019).
Liddelow, S. A. et al. Neurotoxic reactive astrocytes are induced by activated microglia. Nature 541, 481–487. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature21029 (2017).
Monje, M. & Iwasaki, A. The neurobiology of long COVID. Neuron 110, 3484–3496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2022.10.006 (2022).
Rejdak, K. & Grieb, P. Adamantanes might be protective from COVID-19 in patients with neurological diseases: Multiple sclerosis, Parkinsonism and cognitive impairment. Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord. 42, 102163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msard.2020.102163 (2020).
Artusi, C. A. et al. COVID-19 and Parkinson’s disease: What do we know so far? J. Parkinsons Dis. 11, 445–454. https://doi.org/10.3233/JPD-202463 (2021).
Cortes-Borra, A. & Aranda-Abreu, G. E. Amantadine in the prevention of clinical symptoms caused by SARS-CoV-2. Pharmacol. Rep. 73, 962–965. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43440-021-00231-5 (2021).
Muller, T., Riederer, P. & Kuhn, W. Aminoadamantanes: From treatment of Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease to symptom amelioration of long COVID-19 syndrome? Expert Rev. Clin. Pharmacol. 16, 101–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512433.2023.2176301 (2023).
Volbracht, C., van Beek, J., Zhu, C., Blomgren, K. & Leist, M. Neuroprotective properties of memantine in different in vitro and in vivo models of excitotoxicity. Eur. J. Neurosci. 23, 2611–2622. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.04787.x (2006).
Wu, H. M. et al. Novel neuroprotective mechanisms of memantine: increase in neurotrophic factor release from astroglia and anti-inflammation by preventing microglial activation. Neuropsychopharmacology 34, 2344–2357. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2009.64 (2009).
Brison, E., Jacomy, H., Desforges, M. & Talbot, P. J. Novel treatment with neuroprotective and antiviral properties against a neuroinvasive human respiratory virus. J. Virol. 88, 1548–1563. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.02972-13 (2014).
Rogawski, M. A. & Wenk, G. L. The neuropharmacological basis for the use of memantine in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. CNS Drug Rev. 9, 275–308. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1527-3458.2003.tb00254.x (2003).
Mony, L., Kew, J. N., Gunthorpe, M. J. & Paoletti, P. Allosteric modulators of NR2B-containing NMDA receptors: Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential. Br. J. Pharmacol. 157, 1301–1317. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1476-5381.2009.00304.x (2009).
Fischler, P. V., Soyka, M., Seifritz, E. & Mutschler, J. Off-label and investigational drugs in the treatment of alcohol use disorder: A critical review. Front. Pharmacol. 13, 927703. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.927703 (2022).
Paoletti, P. & Neyton, J. NMDA receptor subunits: Function and pharmacology. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol. 7, 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coph.2006.08.011 (2007).
Zhou, Y. et al. Efficacy of ion-channel inhibitors amantadine, memantine and rimantadine for the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro. Viruses 13(10), 2082. https://doi.org/10.3390/v13102082 (2021).
Harandi, A. A. et al. A randomized open-label clinical trial on the effect of Amantadine on post Covid 19 fatigue. Sci. Rep. 14, 1343. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-51904-z (2024).
Aranda-Abreu, G. E., Aranda-Martinez, J. D. & Araujo, R. Use of amantadine in a patient with SARS-CoV-2. J. Med. Virol. 93, 110–111. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.26179 (2021).
Pharmaceuticals, A. (ed Novotech) (2020).
NIH. Guidelines for Endpoints in Animal Studies. (National Institute of Health, nih.gov, 2022).
Cohen, J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd edn. (Routledge, 1988).
Sullivan, G. M. & Feinn, R. Using effect size-or why the P value is not enough. J. Grad. Med. Educ. 4, 279–282. https://doi.org/10.4300/JGME-D-12-00156.1 (2012).
Lier, J., Streit, W. J. & Bechmann, I. Beyond activation: Characterizing microglial functional phenotypes. Cells 10(9), 2236. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10092236 (2021).
Parsons, C. G., Danysz, W. & Quack, G. Memantine is a clinically well tolerated N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist–a review of preclinical data. Neuropharmacology 38, 735–767. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0028-3908(99)00019-2 (1999).
Lipton, S. A. Paradigm shift in neuroprotection by NMDA receptor blockade: Memantine and beyond. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 5, 160–170. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd1958 (2006).
Reisberg, B. et al. Memantine in moderate-to-severe Alzheimer’s disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 348, 1333–1341. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa013128 (2003).
Dvoriantchikova, G., Fleishaker, M. & Ivanov, D. Molecular mechanisms of NMDA excitotoxicity in the retina. Sci. Rep. 13, 18471. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-45855-0 (2023).
Norris, C. M. et al. Electrophysiological mechanisms of delayed excitotoxicity: Positive feedback loop between NMDA receptor current and depolarization-mediated glutamate release. J. Neurophysiol. 96, 2488–2500. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00593.2005 (2006).
Haroon, E., Miller, A. H. & Sanacora, G. Inflammation, glutamate, and glia: A trio of trouble in mood disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology 42, 193–215. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2016.199 (2017).
Iovino, L., Tremblay, M. E. & Civiero, L. Glutamate-induced excitotoxicity in Parkinson’s disease: The role of glial cells. J. Pharmacol. Sci. 144, 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphs.2020.07.011 (2020).
Rothstein, J. D. et al. Knockout of glutamate transporters reveals a major role for astroglial transport in excitotoxicity and clearance of glutamate. Neuron 16, 675–686. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0896-6273(00)80086-0 (1996).
Hardin-Pouzet, H. et al. Glutamate metabolism is down-regulated in astrocytes during experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Glia 20, 79–85. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1098-1136(199705)20:1%3c79::aid-glia8%3e3.0.co;2-0 (1997).
Werner, P., Pitt, D. & Raine, C. S. Multiple sclerosis: Altered glutamate homeostasis in lesions correlates with oligodendrocyte and axonal damage. Ann. Neurol. 50, 169–180. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.1077 (2001).
Andrews, M. G. et al. Tropism of SARS-CoV-2 for human cortical astrocytes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 119, e2122236119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2122236119 (2022).
Crunfli, F. et al. Morphological, cellular, and molecular basis of brain infection in COVID-19 patients. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 119, e2200960119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2200960119 (2022).
Sofroniew, M. V. Astrogliosis. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol. 7, a020420. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a020420 (2014).
Jordao, M. J. C. et al. Single-cell profiling identifies myeloid cell subsets with distinct fates during neuroinflammation. Science https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat7554 (2019).
Boroujeni, M. E. et al. Inflammatory response leads to neuronal death in human post-mortem cerebral cortex in patients with COVID-19. ACS Chem. Neurosci. 12, 2143–2150. https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00111 (2021).
Sun, M. et al. Microglia-astrocyte interaction in neural development and neural pathogenesis. Cells https://doi.org/10.3390/cells12151942 (2023).
Matsudaira, T. & Prinz, M. Life and death of microglia: Mechanisms governing microglial states and fates. Immunol. Lett. 245, 51–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imlet.2022.04.001 (2022).
He, X. et al. NLRP3-dependent pyroptosis is required for HIV-1 gp120-induced neuropathology. Cell Mol. Immunol. 17, 283–299. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41423-019-0260-y (2020).
Hu, X. et al. Herpes simplex virus 1 induces microglia gasdermin D-dependent pyroptosis through activating the NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 inflammasome. Front. Microbiol. 13, 838808. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.838808 (2022).
Zhou, T. et al. Microglial debris is cleared by astrocytes via C4b-facilitated phagocytosis and degraded via RUBICON-dependent noncanonical autophagy in mice. Nat. Commun. 13, 6233. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-33932-3 (2022).
Konishi, H. et al. Astrocytic phagocytosis is a compensatory mechanism for microglial dysfunction. EMBO J. 39, e104464. https://doi.org/10.15252/embj.2020104464 (2020).
Ito, D. et al. Microglia-specific localisation of a novel calcium binding protein, Iba1. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 57, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0169-328x(98)00040-0 (1998).
Walker, D. G. & Lue, L. F. Immune phenotypes of microglia in human neurodegenerative disease: Challenges to detecting microglial polarization in human brains. Alzheimers Res. Ther. 7, 56. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13195-015-0139-9 (2015).
Shi, F. J. et al. Is Iba-1 protein expression a sensitive marker for microglia activation in experimental diabetic retinopathy. Int. J. Ophthalmol. 14, 200–208. https://doi.org/10.18240/ijo.2021.02.04 (2021).
Hopperton, K. E., Mohammad, D., Trepanier, M. O., Giuliano, V. & Bazinet, R. P. Markers of microglia in post-mortem brain samples from patients with Alzheimer’s disease: A systematic review. Mol. Psychiatry 23, 177–198. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2017.246 (2018).
Carmen, J., Rothstein, J. D. & Kerr, D. A. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha modulates glutamate transport in the CNS and is a critical determinant of outcome from viral encephalomyelitis. Brain Res. 1263, 143–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2009.01.040 (2009).
Okada, K., Yamashita, U. & Tsuji, S. Modulation of Na(+)-dependent glutamate transporter of murine astrocytes by inflammatory mediators. J. UOEH 27, 161–170. https://doi.org/10.7888/juoeh.27.161 (2005).
Prow, N. A. & Irani, D. N. The inflammatory cytokine, interleukin-1 beta, mediates loss of astroglial glutamate transport and drives excitotoxic motor neuron injury in the spinal cord during acute viral encephalomyelitis. J. Neurochem. 105, 1276–1286. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2008.05230.x (2008).
Huang, T. L. & O’Banion, M. K. Interleukin-1 beta and tumor necrosis factor-alpha suppress dexamethasone induction of glutamine synthetase in primary mouse astrocytes. J. Neurochem. 71, 1436–1442. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1471-4159.1998.71041436.x (1998).
Zou, J. et al. Glutamine synthetase down-regulation reduces astrocyte protection against glutamate excitotoxicity to neurons. Neurochem. Int. 56, 577–584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuint.2009.12.021 (2010).
Anderson, C. M. & Swanson, R. A. Astrocyte glutamate transport: Review of properties, regulation, and physiological functions. Glia 32, 1–14 (2000).
Albrecht, J., Sidoryk-Wegrzynowicz, M., Zielinska, M. & Aschner, M. Roles of glutamine in neurotransmission. Neuron Glia Biol. 6, 263–276. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1740925X11000093 (2010).
Norenberg, M. D. Distribution of glutamine synthetase in the rat central nervous system. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 27, 756–762. https://doi.org/10.1177/27.3.39099 (1979).
Norenberg, M. D. & Martinez-Hernandez, A. Fine structural localization of glutamine synthetase in astrocytes of rat brain. Brain Res. 161, 303–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(79)90071-4 (1979).
Chi, H., Chang, H.-Y. & Sang, T.-K. Neuronal cell death mechanisms in major neurodegenerative diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 19(10), 3082. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19103082 (2018).
J.A. Rumbaugh, A. N. in Encyclopedia of Neuroscience (ed M.D. Binder, Hirokawa, N., Windhorst, U.) (Springer, 2009).
Dorostkar, M. M., Zou, C., Blazquez-Llorca, L. & Herms, J. Analyzing dendritic spine pathology in Alzheimer’s disease: Problems and opportunities. Acta Neuropathol. 130, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-015-1449-5 (2015).
Politi, L. S., Salsano, E. & Grimaldi, M. Magnetic resonance imaging alteration of the brain in a patient with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and anosmia. JAMA Neurol. 77, 1028–1029. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.2125 (2020).
Zachary, M. A. M. a. J. F. in Pathologic Basis of Veterinary Disease (ed James F. Zachary) Ch. 1, (2017).
Reichard, R. R. et al. Neuropathology of COVID-19: A spectrum of vascular and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM)-like pathology. Acta Neuropathol. 140, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-020-02166-2 (2020).
Ismail, I. I. & Salama, S. Association of CNS demyelination and COVID-19 infection: An updated systematic review. J. Neurol. 269, 541–576. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-021-10752-x (2022).
Neumann, B., Segel, M., Chalut, K. J. & Franklin, R. J. Remyelination and ageing: Reversing the ravages of time. Mult. Scler. 25, 1835–1841. https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458519884006 (2019).
Mei, F. et al. Accelerated remyelination during inflammatory demyelination prevents axonal loss and improves functional recovery. eLife https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.18246 (2016).
Irvine, K. A. & Blakemore, W. F. Remyelination protects axons from demyelination-associated axon degeneration. Brain 131, 1464–1477. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awn080 (2008).
Yick, L. W., Tang, C. H., Ma, O. K., Kwan, J. S. & Chan, K. H. Memantine ameliorates motor impairments and pathologies in a mouse model of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders. J. Neuroinflam. 17, 236. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-020-01913-2 (2020).
Alomar, S. Y. et al. Novel mechanism for memantine in attenuating diabetic neuropathic pain in mice via downregulating the spinal HMGB1/TRL4/NF-kB inflammatory axis. Pharmaceuticals 14(4), 307. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph14040307 (2021).
Dong, H., Yuede, C. M., Coughlan, C., Lewis, B. & Csernansky, J. G. Effects of memantine on neuronal structure and conditioned fear in the Tg2576 mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychopharmacology 33, 3226–3236. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2008.53 (2008).
Fontaine, R. H. et al. Vulnerability of white matter towards antenatal hypoxia is linked to a species-dependent regulation of glutamate receptor subunits. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 105, 16779–16784. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0803004105 (2008).
Manousi, A. et al. Identification of novel myelin repair drugs by modulation of oligodendroglial differentiation competence. EBioMedicine 65, 103276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2021.103276 (2021).
Nabizadeh, F. et al. Autoimmune encephalitis associated with COVID-19: A systematic review. Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord. 62, 103795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msard.2022.103795 (2022).
Naidu, K. & Tayler, R. Anti N-Methyl-D-Aspartate receptor antibody associated acute demyelinating encephalomyelitis in a patient with COVID-19: A case report. J. Med. Case Rep. 17, 247. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13256-023-03979-x (2023).
Lee, H. et al. Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis after coronavirus disease 2019: A case report and literature review. Medicine 101(35), e30464. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000030464 (2022).
Oladunni, F. S. et al. Lethality of SARS-CoV-2 infection in K18 human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 transgenic mice. Nat. Commun. 11, 6122. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19891-7 (2020).
Malinowska, B., Napiorkowska-Pawlak, D., Pawlak, R., Buczko, W. & Gothert, M. Ifenprodil influences changes in mouse behaviour related to acute and chronic ethanol administration. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 377, 13–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0014-2999(99)00393-3 (1999).
Poleszak, E. et al. Effects of ifenprodil on the antidepressant-like activity of NMDA ligands in the forced swim test in mice. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 46, 29–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2013.06.001 (2013).
Schidlitzki, A. et al. A combination of NMDA and AMPA receptor antagonists retards granule cell dispersion and epileptogenesis in a model of acquired epilepsy. Sci. Rep. 7, 12191. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-12368-6 (2017).
Stazi, M. & Wirths, O. Chronic memantine treatment ameliorates behavioral deficits, neuron loss, and impaired neurogenesis in a model of Alzheimer’s disease. Mol. Neurobiol. 58, 204–216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-020-02120-z (2021).
Martinez-Coria, H. et al. Memantine improves cognition and reduces Alzheimer’s-like neuropathology in transgenic mice. Am. J. Pathol. 176, 870–880. https://doi.org/10.2353/ajpath.2010.090452 (2010).
Li, P. et al. Memantine ameliorates cognitive deficit in AD mice via enhancement of entorhinal-CA1 projection. BMC Neurosci. 22, 41. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-021-00647-y (2021).
Minkeviciene, R., Banerjee, P. & Tanila, H. Cognition-enhancing and anxiolytic effects of memantine. Neuropharmacology 54, 1079–1085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2008.02.014 (2008).
Hsu, J. Multiple Comparisons: Theory and Methods (Chapman and Hall/CRC, 1996). https://doi.org/10.1201/b15074.
Allen Reference Atlas – Mouse Brain [brain atlas].
Daigle, T. L. et al. A suite of transgenic driver and reporter mouse lines with enhanced brain-cell-type targeting and functionality. Cell 174, 465–480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2018.06.035 (2018).
Harris, J. A. et al. Hierarchical organization of cortical and thalamic connectivity. Nature 575, 195–202. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1716-z (2019).
Lein, E. S. et al. Genome-wide atlas of gene expression in the adult mouse brain. Nature 445, 168–176. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05453 (2007).
Oh, S. W. et al. A mesoscale connectome of the mouse brain. Nature 508, 207–214. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13186 (2014).
Science, A. I. f. B. Allen Mouse Brain Atlas. (2004).