Stock Ticker

Causal role of immunophenotypes in HIV-1 acquisition: insights from Mendelian randomization analysis

  • IfHMaE, I. Global Burden of Disease Study 2021 (GBD 2021) Results. https://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-results/ (2022).

  • HIV.gov. The Global HIV and AIDS Epidemic. https://www.hiv.gov/federal-response/pepfar-global-aids/global-hiv-aids-overview (2025).

  • Rodger, A. J. et al. Risk of HIV transmission through condomless sex in serodifferent gay couples with the HIV-positive partner taking suppressive antiretroviral therapy (PARTNER): Final results of a multicentre, prospective, observational study. Lancet 393, 2428–2438. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30418-0 (2019).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Powell, T. R. et al. The behavioral, cellular and immune mediators of HIV-1 acquisition: New insights from population genetics. Sci. Rep. 10, 3304. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-59256-0 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Donnell, D. et al. HIV protective efficacy and correlates of tenofovir blood concentrations in a clinical trial of PrEP for HIV prevention. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 66, 340–348. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0000000000000172 (2014).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ngcobo, S. et al. Pre-infection plasma cytokines and chemokines as predictors of HIV disease progression. Sci. Rep. 12, 2437. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-06532-w (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Liebenberg, L. J. et al. Genital-systemic chemokine gradients and the Risk of HIV acquisition in women. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 74, 318–325. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0000000000001218 (2017).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Leeansyah, E., Malone, D. F., Anthony, D. D. & Sandberg, J. K. Soluble biomarkers of HIV transmission, disease progression and comorbidities. Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS 8, 117–124. https://doi.org/10.1097/COH.0b013e32835c7134 (2013).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • de Lara, L. M., Parthasarathy, R. S. & Rodriguez-Garcia, M. Mucosal immunity and HIV acquisition in women. Curr. Opin. Physiol. 19, 32–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cophys.2020.07.021 (2021).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Luo, M. Natural immunity against HIV-1: Progression of understanding after association studies. Viruses https://doi.org/10.3390/v14061243 (2022).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Morrison, C. S. et al. Concomitant imbalances of systemic and mucosal immunity increase HIV acquisition risk. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 84, 85–91. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0000000000002299 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Huang, Y. et al. The role of a mutant CCR5 allele in HIV-1 transmission and disease progression. Nat. Med. 2, 1240–1243. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1196-1240 (1996).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Deng, H. et al. Identification of a major co-receptor for primary isolates of HIV-1. Nature 381, 661–666. https://doi.org/10.1038/381661a0 (1996).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Wachira, D., Lihana, R., Okoth, V., Maiyo, A. & Khamadi, S. A. Chemokine coreceptor-2 gene polymorphisms among HIV-1 infected individuals in Kenya. Dis. Markers 2015, 952067. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/952067 (2015).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Teran, L. M., Ramirez-Jimenez, F., Soid-Raggi, G. & Velazquez, J. R. Interleukin 16 and CCL17/thymus and activation-regulated chemokine in patients with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 118, 191–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anai.2016.11.004 (2017).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lee, K. & Lim, C. Y. Mendelian randomization analysis in observational epidemiology. J. Lipid Atheroscler. 8, 67–77. https://doi.org/10.12997/jla.2019.8.2.67 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Emdin, C. A., Khera, A. V. & Kathiresan, S. Mendelian randomization. JAMA 318, 1925–1926. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.17219 (2017).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Wu, Y. et al. Colocalization of GWAS and eQTL signals at loci with multiple signals identifies additional candidate genes for body fat distribution. Hum. Mol. Genet. 28, 4161–4172. https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddz263 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Davies, N. M., Holmes, M. V. & Davey Smith, G. Reading Mendelian randomisation studies: a guide, glossary, and checklist for clinicians. BMJ 362, k601. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k601 (2018).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Orru, V. et al. Complex genetic signatures in immune cells underlie autoimmunity and inform therapy. Nat Genet 52, 1036–1045. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-020-0684-4 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Sidore, C. et al. Genome sequencing elucidates Sardinian genetic architecture and augments association analyses for lipid and blood inflammatory markers. Nat. Genet. 47, 1272–1281. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.3368 (2015).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Duarte, R. R. R., Pain, O., Furler, R. L., Nixon, D. F. & Powell, T. R. Transcriptome-wide association study of HIV-1 acquisition identifies HERC1 as a susceptibility gene. iScience 25, 104854. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2022.104854 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kurki, M. I. et al. FinnGen provides genetic insights from a well-phenotyped isolated population. Nature 613, 508–518. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05473-8 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Johnson, E. O. et al. Novel genetic locus implicated for HIV-1 acquisition with putative regulatory links to HIV replication and infectivity: A genome-wide association study. PLoS ONE 10, e0118149. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118149 (2015).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • McLaren, P. J. et al. Association study of common genetic variants and HIV-1 acquisition in 6,300 infected cases and 7,200 controls. PLoS Pathog. 9, e1003515. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1003515 (2013).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Burgess, S., Butterworth, A. & Thompson, S. G. Mendelian randomization analysis with multiple genetic variants using summarized data. Genet. Epidemiol. 37, 658–665. https://doi.org/10.1002/gepi.21758 (2013).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Genomes Project, C. et al. A global reference for human genetic variation. Nature 526, 68–74, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature15393 (2015).

  • Burgess, S., Thompson, S. G. & Collaboration, C. C. G. Avoiding bias from weak instruments in Mendelian randomization studies. Int. J. Epidemiol. 40, 755–764. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyr036 (2011).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Palmer, T. M. et al. Instrumental variable estimation of causal risk ratios and causal odds ratios in Mendelian randomization analyses. Am. J. Epidemiol. 173, 1392–1403. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwr026 (2011).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Burgess, S., Small, D. S. & Thompson, S. G. A review of instrumental variable estimators for Mendelian randomization. Stat. Methods Med. Res. 26, 2333–2355. https://doi.org/10.1177/0962280215597579 (2017).

    Article 
    MathSciNet 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Burgess, S., Bowden, J., Fall, T., Ingelsson, E. & Thompson, S. G. Sensitivity analyses for robust causal inference from Mendelian randomization analyses with multiple genetic variants. Epidemiology 28, 30–42. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000000559 (2017).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Bowden, J., Davey Smith, G. & Burgess, S. Mendelian randomization with invalid instruments: effect estimation and bias detection through Egger regression. Int. J. Epidemiol. 44, 512–525. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyv080 (2015).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Chen, X., Li, A., Kuang, Y. & Ma, Q. Gastroesophageal reflux disease and atrial fibrillation: A bidirectional Mendelian randomization study. Int. J. Med. Sci. 21, 1321–1328. https://doi.org/10.7150/ijms.95518 (2024).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Giambartolomei, C. et al. Bayesian test for colocalisation between pairs of genetic association studies using summary statistics. PLoS Genet. 10, e1004383. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1004383 (2014).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Watts, E. L. et al. Circulating insulin-like growth factors and risks of overall, aggressive and early-onset prostate cancer: A collaborative analysis of 20 prospective studies and Mendelian randomization analysis. Int. J. Epidemiol. 52, 71–86. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyac124 (2023).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Wu, Y. et al. Integrative analysis of omics summary data reveals putative mechanisms underlying complex traits. Nat. Commun. 9, 918. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-03371-0 (2018).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Consortium, G. T. The GTEx Consortium atlas of genetic regulatory effects across human tissues. Science 369, 1318–1330, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaz1776 (2020).

  • McRae, A. F. et al. Identification of 55,000 replicated DNA methylation QTL. Sci. Rep. 8, 17605. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-35871-w (2018).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Zhou, Y. et al. Metascape provides a biologist-oriented resource for the analysis of systems-level datasets. Nat. Commun. 10, 1523. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09234-6 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kanehisa, M., Furumichi, M., Sato, Y., Matsuura, Y. & Ishiguro-Watanabe, M. KEGG: Biological systems database as a model of the real world. Nucl. Acids Res. 53, D672–D677. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkae909 (2025).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kuleshov, M. V. et al. Enrichr: A comprehensive gene set enrichment analysis web server 2016 update. Nucl. Acids Res. 44, W90-97. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkw377 (2016).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Xie, Z. et al. Gene set knowledge discovery with enrichr. Curr. Protoc. 1, e90. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpz1.90 (2021).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Chen, E. Y. et al. Enrichr: Interactive and collaborative HTML5 gene list enrichment analysis tool. BMC Bioinf. 14, 128. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2105-14-128 (2013).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Fowke, K. R. et al. Resistance to HIV-1 infection among persistently seronegative prostitutes in Nairobi, Kenya. Lancet 348, 1347–1351. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(95)12269-2 (1996).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Dabis, F. et al. Rates of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Africa, America, and Europe: Results from 13 perinatal studies. The Working Group on Mother-To-Child Transmission of HIV. J. Acquir. Immune. Defic. Syndr. Hum. Retrovirol. 8, 506–510. https://doi.org/10.1097/00042560-199504120-00011 (1995).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Pedraza, M. A. et al. Heterosexual transmission of HIV-1 is associated with high plasma viral load levels and a positive viral isolation in the infected partner. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 21, 120–125 (1999).

    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Patel, P. et al. Estimating per-act HIV transmission risk: a systematic review. AIDS 28, 1509–1519. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0000000000000298 (2014).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • McLaren, P. J. et al. Polymorphisms of large effect explain the majority of the host genetic contribution to variation of HIV-1 virus load. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 112, 14658–14663. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1514867112 (2015).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ding, D. L., Liu, S. J. & Zhu, H. Z. Association between the CCR2-Val64Ile polymorphism and susceptibility to HIV-1 infection: A meta-analysis. Mol. Med. Rep. 4, 181–186. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2010.400 (2011).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ngoufack, M. N. et al. CCR2 polymorphism and HIV: Mutation in both mother and child is associated with higher transmission. Int. J. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 10, 42–48 (2019).

    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Qijian, S. et al. Distribution of CCR5-delta32, CCR2-64I, and SDF1-3’A in Guangxi Zhuang population. J. Int. Assoc. Physicians AIDS Care (Chic) 9, 145–149. https://doi.org/10.1177/1545109710367517 (2010).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Sundaravaradan, V., Mir, K. D. & Sodora, D. L. Double-negative T cells during HIV/SIV infections: Potential pinch hitters in the T-cell lineup. Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS 7, 164–171. https://doi.org/10.1097/COH.0b013e3283504a66 (2012).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Rodriguez-Rodriguez, N. et al. TCR-alpha/beta CD4(-) CD8(-) double negative T cells arise from CD8(+) T cells. J. Leukoc Biol. 108, 851–857. https://doi.org/10.1002/JLB.1AB0120-548R (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Brandt, D. & Hedrich, C. M. TCRalphabeta(+)CD3(+)CD4(-)CD8(-) (double negative) T cells in autoimmunity. Autoimmun. Rev. 17, 422–430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autrev.2018.02.001 (2018).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Singleterry, W. L., Henderson, H. & Cruse, J. M. Depletion of pro-inflammatory CD161(+) double negative (CD3(+)CD4(-)CD8(-)) T cells in AIDS patients is ameliorated by expansion of the gammadelta T cell population. Exp. Mol. Pathol. 92, 155–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yexmp.2011.11.002 (2012).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Matsumoto, M., Yasukawa, M., Inatsuki, A. & Kobayashi, Y. Human double-negative (CD4-CD8-) T cells bearing alpha beta T cell receptor possess both helper and cytotoxic activities. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 85, 525–530. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2249.1991.tb05761.x (1991).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Wu, Z. et al. CD3(+)CD4(-)CD8(-) (Double-Negative) T cells in inflammation. Immune Disord. Cancer. Front. Immunol. 13, 816005. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.816005 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Meziane, O. et al. HIV infection and persistence in pulmonary mucosal double negative T cells in vivo. J. Virol. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01788-20 (2020).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Chachage, M. et al. CD25+ FoxP3+ Memory CD4 T cells are frequent targets of HIV infection in vivo. J. Virol. 90, 8954–8967. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00612-16 (2016).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Pallikkuth, S., de Armas, L., Rinaldi, S. & Pahwa, S. T follicular helper cells and B cell dysfunction in aging and HIV-1 infection. Front. Immunol. 8, 1380. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2017.01380 (2017).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Carrillo, J. et al. Memory B cell dysregulation in HIV-1-infected individuals. AIDS 32, 149–160. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0000000000001686 (2018).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Buckner, C. M. et al. Maintenance of HIV-specific memory B-Cell responses in elite controllers despite low viral burdens. J. Infect. Dis. 214, 390–398. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiw163 (2016).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Moir, S. & Fauci, A. S. B-cell responses to HIV infection. Immunol Rev 275, 33–48. https://doi.org/10.1111/imr.12502 (2017).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ostrand-Rosenberg, S. & Sinha, P. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells: linking inflammation and cancer. J Immunol 182, 4499–4506. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.0802740 (2009).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Gabrilovich, D. I. & Nagaraj, S. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells as regulators of the immune system. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 9, 162–174. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri2506 (2009).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Dai, J., El Gazzar, M., Li, G. Y., Moorman, J. P. & Yao, Z. Q. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells: paradoxical roles in infection and immunity. J. Innate Immun. 7, 116–126. https://doi.org/10.1159/000368233 (2015).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Youn, J. I., Collazo, M., Shalova, I. N., Biswas, S. K. & Gabrilovich, D. I. Characterization of the nature of granulocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells in tumor-bearing mice. J Leukoc. Biol. 91, 167–181. https://doi.org/10.1189/jlb.0311177 (2012).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Munder, M. et al. Arginase I is constitutively expressed in human granulocytes and participates in fungicidal activity. Blood 105, 2549–2556. https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2004-07-2521 (2005).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Liu, C. Y. et al. Population alterations of L-arginase- and inducible nitric oxide synthase-expressed CD11b+/CD14(-)/CD15+/CD33+ myeloid-derived suppressor cells and CD8+ T lymphocytes in patients with advanced-stage non-small cell lung cancer. J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol. 136, 35–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00432-009-0634-0 (2010).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ohl, K. & Tenbrock, K. Reactive oxygen species as regulators of MDSC-mediated immune suppression. Front Immunol. 9, 2499. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.02499 (2018).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Wang, L. et al. Expansion of myeloid-derived suppressor cells promotes differentiation of regulatory T cells in HIV-1+ individuals. AIDS 30, 1521–1531. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0000000000001083 (2016).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ren, J. P. et al. Hepatitis C virus-induced myeloid-derived suppressor cells regulate T-cell differentiation and function via the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 pathway. Immunology 148, 377–386. https://doi.org/10.1111/imm.12616 (2016).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ren, J. P. et al. Decline of miR-124 in myeloid cells promotes regulatory T-cell development in hepatitis C virus infection. Immunology 150, 213–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/imm.12680 (2017).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Wang, L. et al. HCV-associated exosomes promote myeloid-derived suppressor cell expansion via inhibiting miR-124 to regulate T follicular cell differentiation and function. Cell Discov 4, 51. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41421-018-0052-z (2018).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Agrati, C. et al. Myeloid Derived Suppressor Cells Expansion Persists After Early ART and May Affect CD4 T Cell Recovery. Front Immunol 10, 1886. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.01886 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Vollbrecht, T. et al. Chronic progressive HIV-1 infection is associated with elevated levels of myeloid-derived suppressor cells. AIDS 26, F31-37. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e328354b43f (2012).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Thakuri, B. K. C. et al. LncRNA HOTAIRM1 promotes MDSC expansion and suppressive functions through the HOXA1-miR124 axis during HCV infection. Sci Rep 10, 22033. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-78786-1 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Zhang, J. et al. Long noncoding RNA HOTAIRM1 promotes myeloid-derived suppressor cell expansion and suppressive functions through up-regulating HOXA1 expression during latent HIV infection. AIDS 34, 2211–2221. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0000000000002700 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Zhang, J. et al. Long noncoding RNA RUNXOR promotes myeloid-derived suppressor cell expansion and functions via enhancing immunosuppressive molecule expressions during latent HIV infection. J. Immunol. 206, 2052–2060. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.2001008 (2021).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Board, N. L., Moskovljevic, M., Wu, F., Siliciano, R. F. & Siliciano, J. D. Engaging innate immunity in HIV-1 cure strategies. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 22, 499–512. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-021-00649-1 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Shi, Y. et al. The role of innate immunity in natural elite controllers of HIV-1 infection. Front Immunol. 13, 780922. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.780922 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Source link

    Get RawNews Daily

    Stay informed with our RawNews daily newsletter email

    French superstar ‘hopeful’ of travelling to Portland ahead of Game Three

    GOP senators hope for a quick Cabinet shakeup

    Top NFL Prospect Arvell Reese Says He’s the Best Defensive Player in Draft

    Why is everyone buying Rio Tinto shares?