August, A. et al. Safety and immunogenicity of an mRNA-based human metapneumovirus and parainfluenza virus type 3 combined vaccine in healthy adults. Open Forum Infect. Dis. 9, ofac206 (2022).
John, S. et al. Multi-antigenic human cytomegalovirus mRNA vaccines that elicit potent humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Vaccine 36, 1689–1699 (2018).
Awasthi, S. & Friedman, H. M. An mRNA vaccine to prevent genital herpes. Transl. Res. 242, 56–65 (2022).
Lee, S. et al. mRNA-HPV vaccine encoding E6 and E7 improves therapeutic potential for HPV-mediated cancers via subcutaneous immunization. J. Med. Virol. 95, e29309 (2023).
Zhang, P. et al. A multiclade env–gag VLP mRNA vaccine elicits tier-2 HIV-1-neutralizing antibodies and reduces the risk of heterologous SHIV infection in macaques. Nat. Med. 27, 2234–2245 (2021).
Fang, Z. et al. Polyvalent mRNA vaccination elicited potent immune response to monkeypox virus surface antigens. Cell Res. 33, 407–410 (2023).
Monslow, M. A. et al. Immunogenicity generated by mRNA vaccine encoding VZV gE antigen is comparable to adjuvanted subunit vaccine and better than live attenuated vaccine in nonhuman primates. Vaccine 38, 5793–5802 (2020).
Essink, B. et al. The safety and immunogenicity of two Zika virus mRNA vaccine candidates in healthy flavivirus baseline seropositive and seronegative adults: the results of two randomised, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging, phase 1 clinical trials. Lancet Infect. Dis. 23, 621–633 (2023).
Barbier, A. J., Jiang, A. Y., Zhang, P., Wooster, R. & Anderson, D. G. The clinical progress of mRNA vaccines and immunotherapies. Nat. Biotechnol. 40, 840–854 (2022).
Pardi, N., Hogan, M. J., Porter, F. W. & Weissman, D. mRNA vaccines—a new era in vaccinology. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 17, 261–279 (2018).
Freed, D. C. et al. Pentameric complex of viral glycoprotein H is the primary target for potent neutralization by a human cytomegalovirus vaccine. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 110, E4997–E5005 (2013).
He, Y. et al. Antibodies to the A27 protein of vaccinia virus neutralize and protect against infection but represent a minor component of Dryvax vaccine-induced immunity. J. Infect. Dis. 196, 1026–1032 (2007).
Kaever, T. et al. Linear epitopes in vaccinia virus A27 are targets of protective antibodies induced by vaccination against smallpox. J. Virol. 90, 4334–4345 (2016).
Li, M. et al. Three neutralizing mAbs induced by MPXV A29L protein recognizing different epitopes act synergistically against orthopoxvirus. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 12, 2223669 (2023).
Xia, H., He, Y. R., Zhan, X. Y. & Zha, G. F. Mpox virus mRNA-lipid nanoparticle vaccine candidates evoke antibody responses and drive protection against the vaccinia virus challenge in mice. Antivir. Res. 216, 105668 (2023).
Kreiter, S. et al. Mutant MHC class II epitopes drive therapeutic immune responses to cancer. Nature 520, 692–696 (2015).
Ramos da Silva, J. et al. Single immunizations of self-amplifying or non-replicating mRNA-LNP vaccines control HPV-associated tumors in mice. Sci. Transl. Med. 15, eabn3464 (2023).
Harper, D. M. et al. Efficacy of a bivalent L1 virus-like particle vaccine in prevention of infection with human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 in young women: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 364, 1757–1765 (2004).
Tan, M. Norovirus vaccines: current clinical development and challenges. Pathogens 10, 1641 (2021).
Dattwyler, R. J. & Gomes-Solecki, M. The year that shaped the outcome of the OspA vaccine for human Lyme disease. npj Vaccines 7, 10 (2022).
Bonam, S. R., Renia, L., Tadepalli, G., Bayry, J. & Kumar, H. M. S. Plasmodium falciparum malaria vaccines and vaccine adjuvants. Vaccines 9, 1072 (2021).
Polack, F. P. et al. Safety and efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine. N. Engl. J. Med. 383, 2603–2615 (2020).
Baden, L. R. et al. Efficacy and safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. N. Engl. J. Med. 384, 403–416 (2021).
Fang, Z. et al. Heterotypic vaccination responses against SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.2. Cell Discov. 8, 69 (2022).
Sample, P. J. et al. Human 5′ UTR design and variant effect prediction from a massively parallel translation assay. Nat. Biotechnol. 37, 803–809 (2019).
Leppek, K. et al. Combinatorial optimization of mRNA structure, stability, and translation for RNA-based therapeutics. Nat. Commun. 13, 1536 (2022).
Cao, J. et al. High-throughput 5′ UTR engineering for enhanced protein production in non-viral gene therapies. Nat. Commun. 12, 4138 (2021).
Henderson, J. M. et al. Cap 1 messenger RNA synthesis with co-transcriptional CleanCap® analog by in vitro transcription. Curr. Protoc. 1, e39 (2021).
Kariko, K., Buckstein, M., Ni, H. & Weissman, D. Suppression of RNA recognition by Toll-like receptors: the impact of nucleoside modification and the evolutionary origin of RNA. Immunity 23, 165–175 (2005).
Hoffmann, M. A. G. et al. ESCRT recruitment to SARS-CoV-2 spike induces virus-like particles that improve mRNA vaccines. Cell 186, 2380–2391.e9 (2023).
Berger, A. Th1 and Th2 responses: what are they? Br. Med. J. 321, 424 (2000).
Romagnani, S. T-cell subsets (Th1 versus Th2). Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 85, 9–18 (2000).
Cheng, X. et al. A synergistic lipid nanoparticle encapsulating mRNA shingles vaccine induces potent immune responses and protects guinea pigs from viral challenges. Adv. Mater. 36, e2310886 (2024).
Tao, M., Kruhlak, M., Xia, S., Androphy, E. & Zheng, Z. M. Signals that dictate nuclear localization of human papillomavirus type 16 oncoprotein E6 in living cells. J. Virol. 77, 13232–13247 (2003).
Verbeke, R., Hogan, M. J., Lore, K. & Pardi, N. Innate immune mechanisms of mRNA vaccines. Immunity 55, 1993–2005 (2022).
Akkaya, M., Kwak, K. & Pierce, S. K. B cell memory: building two walls of protection against pathogens. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 20, 229–238 (2020).
Rock, K. L., Reits, E. & Neefjes, J. Present yourself! By MHC class I and MHC class II molecules. Trends Immunol. 37, 724–737 (2016).
Kreiter, S. et al. Increased antigen presentation efficiency by coupling antigens to MHC class I trafficking signals. J. Immunol. 180, 309–318 (2008).
Arieta, C. M. et al. The T-cell-directed vaccine BNT162b4 encoding conserved non-spike antigens protects animals from severe SARS-CoV-2 infection. Cell 186, 2392–2409.e21 (2023).
Zuiani, A. et al. A multivalent mRNA monkeypox virus vaccine (BNT166) protects mice and macaques from orthopoxvirus disease. Cell 187, 1363–1373.e12 (2024).
Weber, J. S. et al. Individualised neoantigen therapy mRNA-4157 (V940) plus pembrolizumab versus pembrolizumab monotherapy in resected melanoma (KEYNOTE-942): a randomised, phase 2b study. Lancet 403, 632–644 (2024).
Rojas, L. A. et al. Personalized RNA neoantigen vaccines stimulate T cells in pancreatic cancer. Nature 618, 144–150 (2023).
Cafri, G. et al. mRNA vaccine-induced neoantigen-specific T cell immunity in patients with gastrointestinal cancer. J. Clin. Invest. 130, 5976–5988 (2020).
Moffat, J. et al. Functions of the C-terminal domain of varicella-zoster virus glycoprotein E in viral replication in vitro and skin and T-cell tropism in vivo. J. Virol. 78, 12406–12415 (2004).
Barash, S., Wang, W. & Shi, Y. Human secretory signal peptide description by hidden Markov model and generation of a strong artificial signal peptide for secreted protein expression. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 294, 835–842 (2002).
Dai, X. et al. One-step generation of modular CAR-T cells with AAV–Cpf1. Nat. Methods 16, 247–254 (2019).
Reiss, S. et al. Comparative analysis of activation induced marker (AIM) assays for sensitive identification of antigen-specific CD4 T cells. PLoS ONE 12, e0186998 (2017).
Galvez, R. I. et al. Frequency of Dengue virus-specific T cells is related to infection outcome in endemic settings. JCI Insight 10, e179771 (2025).
Peng, L. et al. Variant-specific vaccination induces systems immune responses and potent in vivo protection against SARS-CoV-2. Cell Rep. Med. 3, 100634 (2022).
Ye, L. et al. A genome-scale gain-of-function CRISPR screen in CD8 T cells identifies proline metabolism as a means to enhance CAR-T therapy. Cell Metab. 34, 595–614.e14 (2022).
Fang, Z. et al. Omicron-specific mRNA vaccination alone and as a heterologous booster against SARS-CoV-2. Nat. Commun. 13, 3250 (2022).
Fang, Z. et al. fangzhe3 / MVP_code. GitHub https://github.com/fangzhe3/MVP_code (2025).
