Wang, L., Wang, Y., Ye, D. & Liu, Q. Review of the 2019 novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) based on current evidence. Int. J. Antimicrobial Agents 55, 105948 (2020).
The Lancet Public Health. COVID-19 pandemic: What’s next for public health. Lancet Public Health 7, e391 (2022).
Mueller, A. L., McNamara, M. S. & Sinclair, D. A. Why does COVID-19 disproportionately affect older people? Aging 12, 9959–9981 (2020).
Anzalone, A. J. et al. Higher hospitalization and mortality rates among SARS-CoV-2-infected persons in rural America. J. Rural Health 27, 39–54 (2022).
Magesh, S. et al. Disparities in COVID-19 Outcomes by Race, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic Status. JAMA Netw. Open 4, e2134147 (2021).
Tai, D. B. G., Sha, A., Doubeni, C. A., Sia, I. G. & Wieland, M. L. The Disproportionate Impact of COVID-19 on Racial and Ethnic Minorities in the United States. Clin. Infect. Dis. 72, 703–706 (2021).
Tessum, C. W. et al. PM2.5 polluters disproportionately and systemically affect people of color in the United States. Sci. Adv. 7, eabf4491 (2021).
Shumake, K. L., Sacks, J. D., Lee, J. S. & Johns, D. O. Susceptibility of older adults to health effects induced by ambient air pollutants regulated by the European Union and the United States. Aginging Clin. Exp. Res 25, 3–8 (2013).
Wu, X., Braun, D., Schwartz, J., Kioumourtzoglou, M. A. & Dominici, F. Evaluating the impact of long-term exposure to fine particulate matter on mortality among the elderly. Sci. Adv. 6, eaba5692 (2020).
Di, Q. et al. Air Pollution and Mortality in the Medicare Population. N. Engl. J. Med 376, 2513–2522 (2017).
Bell, M. L. & Ebisu, K. Environmental inequality in exposures to airborne particulate matter components in the United States. Environ. Health Perspect. 120, 1699–1704 (2012).
Miranda, M. L., Edwards, S. E., Keating, M. H. & Paul, C. J. Making the environmental justice grade: the relative burden of air pollution exposure in the United States. Int J. Environ. Res Public Health 8, 1755–1771 (2011).
Day, D. B. et al. Association of Ozone Exposure With Cardiorespiratory Pathophysiologic Mechanisms in Healthy Adults. JAMA Intern. Med. 177, 1344–1353 (2017).
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter (Final Report). (Washington DC, 2019).
Pope, C. A. III, Coleman, N., Pond, Z. A. & Burnett, R. T. Fine particulate air pollution and human mortality: 25+ years of cohort studies. Environ. Res. 183, 108924 (2020).
Ural, B. B. et al. Inhaled particulate accumulation with age impairs immune function and architecture in human lung lymph nodes. Nat. Med. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-022-02073-x (2022).
Benmarhnia, T. Linkages between air pollution and the health burden from COVID-19: Methodological challenges and opportunities. Am. J. Epidemiol. 189, 1238–1243 (2020).
Mendy, A. et al. Air pollution and the pandemic: Long‐term PM2.5 exposure and disease severity in COVID‐19 patients. Respirology 26, 1181–1187 (2021).
Kim, H., Samet, J. M. & Bell, M. L. Association between Short-Term Exposure to Air Pollution and COVID-19 Mortality: A Population-Based Case-Crossover Study Using Individual-Level Mortality Registry Confirmed by Medical Examiners. Environ. Health Perspect. 130, 117006 (2022).
Bozack, A. et al. Long-Term Air Pollution Exposure and COVID-19 Mortality: A Patient-Level Analysis from New York City. Am. J. Crit. Care Med. 205, 651–662 (2022).
Chen, Z. et al. Near-roadway air pollution associated with COVID-19 severity and mortality – multiethnic cohort study in Southern California. Environ. Int. 157, 106862 (2021).
Chen, Z. et al. Ambient air pollutant exposures and COVID-19 severity and mortality in a cohort of patients with COVID-19 in Southern California. Am. J. Respiratory Crit. Care Med. 206, 440–448 (2022).
Adhikari, A. & Yin, J. Short-Term Effects of Ambient Ozone, PM2.5, and Meteorological Factors on COVID-19 Confirmed Cases and Deaths in Queens, New York. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 17, 4047 (2020).
Xu, L., Taylor, J. E. & Kaiser, J. Short-term air pollution exposure and COVID-19 infection in the United States. Environ. Pollut. 292, 118369 (2022).
Mendy, A. et al. Long-term exposure to fine particulate matter and hospitalization in COVID-19 patients. Respiratory Med. 178, 106313 (2021).
Liang, D. et al. Urban Air Pollution May Enhance COVID-19 Case-Fatality and Mortality Rates in the United States. Innovation 1, 100047 (2020).
Wu, X., Nethery, R. C., Sabath, M. B., Braun, D. & Dominici, F. Air pollution and COVID-19 mortality in the United States: Strengths and limitations of an ecological regression analysis. Sci. Adv. 6, eabd4049 (2020).
Haendel, M. A. et al. The National COVID Cohort Collaborative (N3C): Rationale, design, infrastructure, and deployment. J. Am. Med. Inform. Assoc. 28, 427–443 (2021).
Pfaff, E. R. et al. Identifying who has long COVID in the USA: a machine learning approach using N3C data. Lancet Digital Health 4, E532–E541 (2022).
Klann, J. G. et al. Distinguishing Admissions Specifically for COVID-19 From Incidental SARS-CoV-2 Admissions: National Retrospective Electronic Health Record Study. J. Med Internet Res 24, e37931 (2022).
Hill, E. et al. Risk Factors Associated with Post-Acute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 in an EHR Cohort: A National COVID Cohort Collaborative (N3C) Analysis as part of the NIH RECOVER program. medRxiv, https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.08.15.22278603 (2022).
Casiraghi, E. et al. A Methodological Framework for the Comparative Evaluation of Multiple Imputation Methods: Multiple Imputation of Race, Ethnicity and Body Mass Index in the U.S. National COVID Cohort Collaborative. arXiv 2206.06444 (2022).
Bradwell, K. R. et al. Harmonizing units and values of quantitative data elements in a very large nationally pooled electronic health record (EHR) dataset. J. Am. Med Inf. Assoc. 29, 1172–1182 (2022).
Deer, R. R. et al. Characterizing Long COVID: Deep Phenotype of a Complex Condition. EBioMedicine 74, 103722 (2021).
Borland, D. et al. Enabling Longitudinal Exploratory Analysis of Clinical COVID Data. ArXiv (2021).
Rando, H. M. et al. Challenges in defining Long COVID: Striking differences across literature, Electronic Health Records, and patient-reported information. medRxiv, https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.03.20.21253896 (2021).
Wong, R. et al. Effect of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Infection Severity on Longer-Term Glycemic Control and Weight in People With Type 2 Diabetes. Diab. Care 45, 2709–2717 (2022).
Bennett, T. D. et al. Clinical Characterization and Prediction of Clinical Severity of SARS-CoV-2 Infection Among US Adults Using Data From the US National COVID Cohort Collaborative. Jama Netw. Open 4, e2116901 (2021).
OMOP. Vol. Version 5.3.1 (2021).
Phenotype_Data_Acquisition. Github, https://github.com/National-COVID-Cohort-Collaborative/Phenotype_Data_Acquisition (2020).
Ge, J., Pletcher, M. J. & Cai, J. C. Outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Patients With Chronic Liver Disease and Cirrhosis: A National COVID Cohort Collaborative Study. Gastroenterology 161, 1487–1501 (2021).
Bell, M. L. et al. Seasonal and regional short-term effects of fine particles on hospital admissions in 202 U.S. counties. Am. J. Epidemiol. 168, 1301–1310 (2008).
Daly, C. et al. Physiographically sensitive mapping of climatological temperature and precipitation across the conterminous United States. Int. J. Climatol. 28, 2031–2064 (2008).
Stoklosa, J., Daly, C., Foster, S. D., Ashcroft, M. B. & Warton, D. I. A climate of uncertainty: accounting for error in climate variables for species distribution models. Methods Ecol. Evolution 6, 412–423 (2014).
PRISM Climate Group. PRISM Climate Data.
Son, J.-Y., Choi, H. M., Miranda, M. L. & Bell, M. L. Exposure to heat during pregnancy and preterm birth in North Carolina: Main effect and disparities by residential greenness, urbanicity, and socioeconomic status. Environ. Res. 204, 112315 (2022).
Lim, C. C. et al. Long-Term Exposure to Ozone and Cause-Specific Mortality Risk in the United States. Am. J. Resp. Crit. Care Med. 200, 1022–1031 (2018).
US Census Bureau. Housing Patterns and Core-Based Statistical Areas, https://www.census.gov/topics/housing/housing-patterns/about/core-based-statistical-areas.html (2021).
Hall, S. A., Kaufman, J. S. & Ricketts, T. C. Defining Urban and Rural Areas in U.S. Epidemiologic Studies. J. Urban Health 83, 162–175 (2006).
USA Facts. US COVID-19 cases and deaths by state https://usafacts.org/visualizations/coronavirus-covid-19-spread-map/ (2020).
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. United States COVID-19 County Level of Community Transmission, https://data.cdc.gov/Public-Health-Surveillance/United-States-COVID-19-County-Level-of-Community-T/nra9-vzzn and https://github.com/CSSEGISandData/COVID-19/tree/master/csse_covid_19_data/csse_covid_19_time_series (2022).
Flury, B. K. & Riedwyl, H. Standard Distance in Univariate and Multivariate Analysis. Am. Statistician 40, 249–251 (1986).
Austin, P. C. Using the Standardized Difference to Compare the Prevalence of a Binary Variable Between Two Groups in Observational Research. Commun. Stat. – Simul. Comput. 38, 1228–1234 (2009).
R Core Team. (ed R Foundation for Statistical Computing) (Vienna, Austria, 2019).
A Package for Survival Analysis in R (2023).
Therneau, T. & Grambsch, P. M. Modeling Survival Data: Extending the Cox Model. (Springer, 2000).
Leese, P. et al. Clinical encounter heterogeneity and methods for resolving in networked EHR data: a study from N3C and RECOVER programs. J. Am. Med. Inform. Assoc. 30, 1125–1136 (2023).
Viechtbauer, W. Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package. J. Stat. Softw. 36, 1–48 (2010).
Yang, Y. et al. Spatial distribution and driving factors of the associations between temperature and influenza-like illness in the United States: a time-stratified case-crossover study. BMC Public Health 23, 1403 (2023).
Eric, L. et al. Short-term exposure to ambient air pollution and individual emergency department visits for COVID-19: a case-crossover study in Canada. Thorax 78, 459 (2023).
Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15990139 (Github, 2023).
Bell, M. L., Dominici, F., Ebisu, K., Zeger, S. L. & Samet, J. M. Spatial and Temporal Variation in PM2.5 Chemical Composition in the United States for Health Effects Studies. Environ. Health Persp. 115, 989–995 (2007).
Pope, C. A. et al. Mortality Risk and Fine Particulate Air Pollution in a Large, Representative Cohort of U.S. Adults. Environ. Health Perspect. 127, 077007 (2019).
Tian, Y. et al. Ambient air pollution and daily hospital admissions: A nationwide study in 218 Chinese cities. Environ. Pollut. 242, 1042–1049 (2018).
Jin, T. et al. Associations between long-term air pollution exposure and the incidence of cardiovascular diseases among American older adults. Environ. Int. 170, 107594 (2022).
Chen, Z. et al. The Independent Effect of COVID-19 Vaccinations and Air Pollution Exposure on Risk of COVID-19 Hospitalizations in Southern California. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med 207, 218–221 (2023).
Mendy, A. et al. Air pollution and the pandemic: Long-term PM(2.5) exposure and disease severity in COVID-19 patients. Respirology 26, 1181–1187 (2021).
Hernandez Carballo, I., Bakola, M. & Stuckler, D. The impact of air pollution on COVID-19 incidence, severity, and mortality: A systematic review of studies in Europe and North America. Environ. Res. 215, 114155 (2022).
Linares, C. et al. Impact of environmental factors and Sahara dust intrusions on incidence and severity of COVID-19 disease in Spain. Effect in the first and second pandemic waves. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res Int 28, 51948–51960 (2021).
Frontera, A., Cianfanelli, L., Vlachos, K., Landoni, G. & Cremona, G. Severe air pollution links to higher mortality in COVID-19 patients: The “double-hit” hypothesis. J. Infect. 81, 255–259 (2020).
Sagawa, T. et al. Exposure to particulate matter upregulates ACE2 and TMPRSS2 expression in the murine lung. Environ. Res. 195, 110722 (2021).
Li, H.-H. et al. Upregulation of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 by particulate matter and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: a potential role in severe COVID-19. Part. Fibre Toxicol. 18, 11 (2021).
Tang, H. et al. The short- and long-term associations of particulate matter with inflammation and blood coagulation markers: A meta-analysis. Environ. Pollut. 267, 115630 (2020).
de Bont, J. et al. Ambient air pollution and cardiovascular diseases: An umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. J. Intern. Med. 291, 779–800 (2022).
Xing, Y.-F., Xu, Y.-H., Shi, M.-H. & Lian, Y.-X. The impact of PM2.5 on the human respiratory system. J. Thorac. Dis. 8, E69–E74 (2016).
Sacks Jason, D. et al. Particulate Matter–Induced Health Effects: Who Is Susceptible? Environ. Health Perspect. 119, 446–454 (2011).
Fuller, C. H., Feeser, K. R., Sarnat, J. A. & O’Neill, M. S. Air pollution, cardiovascular endpoints and susceptibility by stress and material resources: a systematic review of the evidence. Environ. Health 16, 58 (2017).
Weaver, A. M. et al. Neighborhood Sociodemographic Effects on the Associations Between Long-term PM2.5 Exposure and Cardiovascular Outcomes and Diabetes Mellitus. Environm. Epidemiol. 3, e038 (2019).
Ward‐Caviness, C. K. et al. Long‐Term Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution Is Associated With 30‐Day Readmissions and Hospital Visits Among Patients With Heart Failure. J. Am. Heart Assoc. 10, e019430 (2021).
Lumley, T. & Levy, D. Bias in the case – crossover design: implications for studies of air pollution. Environmetrics 11, 689–704 (2000).
Janes, H., Sheppard, L. & Lumley, T. Overlap bias in the case-crossover design, with application to air pollution exposures. Stat. Med. 24, 285–300 (2005).
Farina, N. et al. COVID-19: Pharmacology and kinetics of viral clearance. Pharmacol. Res. 161, 105114 (2020).
